Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans最新文献

{"title":"Effects of Current Curvature on Topography-Modulated Cross-Isobath Motion in Northern South China Sea","authors":"Ying Chen,&nbsp;Zhiqiang Liu,&nbsp;Zhongya Cai","doi":"10.1029/2025JC023949","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2025JC023949","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Over continental shelves, shelf currents typically follow isobaths under the constraint of potential vorticity conservation. However, when the current curvature deviates from that of the underlying isobaths, it leads to intensified cross-isobath motions, which play a critical role in facilitating exchange between coastal and open ocean waters. This study examines the topography-modulated cross-isobath motions over the Northern South China Sea (NSCS) shelf from the perspective of current curvature. Utilizing high-resolution numerical simulations, we identify three regions, east of Hainan Island, south of Shanwei, and west of Taiwan Island, where convex topography disrupts the natural alignment between current curvature and isobaths. This misalignment leads to intensified downstream geostrophic cross-isobath motion. Over those intensified cross-isobath motion regions, shelf current curvature and cross-isobath velocity exhibit consistent spatial and temporal patterns. Under the geostrophic balance in cross-stream direction, the along-stream dynamics of the shelf current are governed by the interplay of nonlinear advection, surface and bottom stress, and pressure gradient force (<span></span><math>\u0000 <semantics>\u0000 <mrow>\u0000 <msub>\u0000 <mtext>PGF</mtext>\u0000 <mi>s</mi>\u0000 </msub>\u0000 </mrow>\u0000 <annotation> ${text{PGF}}_{mathrm{s}}$</annotation>\u0000 </semantics></math>), with their cross-stream variation shaped by topographic features. Analysis reveals that the current curvature, quantified by curvature vorticity, is primarily controlled by the nonlinear vorticity transport and the topography-modulated current divergence/convergence (stretching effect) in summer. In winter, the generation of curvature vorticity is additionally influenced by the conversion of current shear through cross-stream gradients in <span></span><math>\u0000 <semantics>\u0000 <mrow>\u0000 <msub>\u0000 <mtext>PGF</mtext>\u0000 <mi>s</mi>\u0000 </msub>\u0000 </mrow>\u0000 <annotation> ${text{PGF}}_{mathrm{s}}$</annotation>\u0000 </semantics></math> and bottom stress (banking effect), as well as bottom frictional stress term. These processes collectively shape the curvature structure of the shelf current and the associated cross-isobath motion.</p>","PeriodicalId":54340,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans","volume":"131 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147682923","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Harbor-Induced Tidal Salinity Dispersion in Partially Stratified Estuaries","authors":"D. van Keulen,&nbsp;W. M. Kranenburg,&nbsp;A. J. F. Hoitink","doi":"10.1029/2025JC023208","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2025JC023208","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The contribution of tidal trapping to salt dispersion has been well described for well-mixed estuaries, in terms of barotropic filling and emptying of the traps. How traps contribute to salt dispersion in deeper, partially stratified systems remains underexplored. We investigate the dispersive effect of temporary storage of saltwater in harbors adjacent to a partially stratified estuary using field observations and numerical modeling. Our results show that instantaneous channel–harbor salt exchange is dominated by density-driven exchange flows arising from baroclinic pressure gradients between the channel and the harbors. This pressure gradient, and consequently the exchange flow, reverses during the tide due to tidal variations in main-channel salinity. Quantification of the trapping-induced additional salt transport from individual basins reveals substantial differences in contributions of individual basins. These differences are linked to a region in the main channel where the tidal salinity range has a minimum, thus limiting the set-up of baroclinic pressure gradients, reducing exchange flow strength and tidal trapping. Analysis of the density-driven exchange reveals that it scales with the tidal salinity range raised to the power 3/2. Using this relationship, we derive an expression for the dispersion coefficient associated with density-driven tidal trapping. This formulation indicates that the resulting dispersion is governed by the main-channel tidal excursion length and the propagation speed of the density current within the trap, and that the dispersion coefficient scales with the square root of the along-channel salinity gradient, in contrast to tidal trapping driven by basin filling and emptying, which is independent of this gradient.</p>","PeriodicalId":54340,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans","volume":"131 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2025JC023208","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147682915","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Seasonal Variations of Freshwater Composition of the Surface Desalinated Layer of the Kara Sea","authors":"U. A. Kazakova,&nbsp;A. A. Polukhin","doi":"10.1029/2025JC023394","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2025JC023394","url":null,"abstract":"<p>We present the results of a study on the seasonal variability in the contribution of different freshwater sources to the formation of the surface desalinated layer (SDL) of the Kara Sea within one ice-free period in 2021. We use direct measurements on physical and chemical properties of the investigated water. For the first time, a layer-by-layer calculation of the contribution of the Ob and Yenisei waters and sea ice meltwater (SIM) to SDL using a 4-component mixing model is presented. We show that seasonal variability of chemical run-off of the Ob’ and Yenisei Rivers strongly affects the chemical properties of the SDL. Also, the difference in the values of total alkalinity and dissolved silicates between the riverine waters of the Ob and Yenisei and SIM reveals freshwater origin. The fractions of Ob, Yenisei and SIM waters in the surface layer in different seasons vary within 5%–40%, 4%–55%, and 2%–26%, respectively. It has been shown that a redistribution of freshwater occurs within the SDL of the Kara Sea by the end of the ice-free period.</p>","PeriodicalId":54340,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans","volume":"131 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147682914","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Impacts of Salinity Stratification on Sub-Seasonal SST Warming in the Northern Indian Ocean","authors":"S. Kerhalkar,&nbsp;A. Tandon,&nbsp;J. A. MacKinnon","doi":"10.1029/2025JC023486","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2025JC023486","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The Northern Indian Ocean (NIO) experiences strong upper ocean warming during the spring intermonsoon season, with nearly 90% of the days showing net heat gain. However, observations reveal spatially heterogeneous Sea Surface Temperature (SST) trends [O(1°C) differences] in these regions over intra-seasonal timescales (15–45 days) and mesoscale and smaller length scales (&lt;100 km), coinciding with significant lateral variability in winds [O(2 m s⁻¹)] and salinity stratification [O(2 g kg⁻¹) in surface salinity and O(20 m in mixed layer depth)]. This study investigates the role of salinity-driven mixed layers in driving these gradients in foundational SST warming using one-dimensional modeling. Simulation results using realistic surface forcing show that lateral differences in stratification result in spatial differences in warming of foundational SST by about 0.2–0.5°C over 14–21 days, specifically for shallow mixed layers. However, the influence of stratification on foundational SST warming is nuanced and varies across the NIO, leading to either enhanced or reduced warming. Idealized simulations show that this contrast depends on net heat flux and water optical properties, with stratified cases warming more under high fluxes and turbid conditions. To generalize, we derive an analytical expression for the crossover heat flux <span></span><math>\u0000 <semantics>\u0000 <mrow>\u0000 <mfenced>\u0000 <msub>\u0000 <mi>Q</mi>\u0000 <mi>cross</mi>\u0000 </msub>\u0000 </mfenced>\u0000 </mrow>\u0000 <annotation> $left({Q}_{mathit{cross}}right)$</annotation>\u0000 </semantics></math>, the threshold at which stratified and unstratified cases warm equally. <span></span><math>\u0000 <semantics>\u0000 <mrow>\u0000 <msub>\u0000 <mi>Q</mi>\u0000 <mi>cross</mi>\u0000 </msub>\u0000 </mrow>\u0000 <annotation> ${Q}_{mathit{cross}}$</annotation>\u0000 </semantics></math> depends on shortwave radiation, mixed layer depth and optical properties. For representative clear-sky conditions, <span></span><math>\u0000 <semantics>\u0000 <mrow>\u0000 <msub>\u0000 <mi>Q</mi>\u0000 <mi>cross</mi>\u0000 </msub>\u0000 </mrow>\u0000 <annotation> ${Q}_{mathit{cross}}$</annotation>\u0000 </semantics></math> ranges from 103 to 136 W m⁻². These findings underscore the role of salinity-driven stratification and bio-optical feedback in shaping SST gradients, with likely implications for sub-seasonal to seasonal monsoon forecasting.</p>","PeriodicalId":54340,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans","volume":"131 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147682964","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Multidecadal Oscillation Masks Ocean Wave Climate Trends in 75-Year Global Wave Hindcast","authors":"Tomoya Shimura,&nbsp;Nobuhito Mori,&nbsp;Takuya Miyashita","doi":"10.1029/2025JC022340","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2025JC022340","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The observed increases in temperature and sea level are clearly driven by climate change, and these trends are projected to accelerate in the future. The ocean surface wave characteristics are projected to change depending on the climatic elements. However, the historical trends of the global ocean wave climate have not been accurately assessed owing to the limited duration (primarily starting from the 1980s) and insufficient number of wave observations. Previous numerical studies on the global wave climate using reanalysis data have focused on the period starting from the 1980s. To better understand long-term global wave climate trends, this study conducted a global ocean wave hindcast using the latest atmospheric reanalysis and an unstructured grid wave model over an extended timeframe from 1948 to 2022. The global wave hindcast was validated using satellites, in situ observations, and another reanalysis. The trends of wave heights within the first (1948–1984) and latter (1985–2022) halves exhibit opposing patterns over the North Pacific, resulting in no overall trend across the entire period, which indicates large multidecadal variability. Positive trends in wave heights in the Southern Ocean are evident, with a slowdown in the latter half of the period. These wave climate trends are supported by trends in atmospheric circulation patterns. The estimated trends in the Northern Hemisphere are not consistent with previous future projections. Addressing the discrepancies between historical trends and future projections is important for increasing confidence in climate projections.</p>","PeriodicalId":54340,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans","volume":"131 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2025JC022340","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147585290","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"High Fraction of Glacial Meltwater Along Two Separate Isopycnals Observed in Summer 2020 Near and Off the Pine Island and Thwaites Ice Shelves, West Antarctica","authors":"Joohyang Kim,&nbsp;SungHyun Nam,&nbsp;Seung-Tae Yoon","doi":"10.1029/2025JC023212","DOIUrl":"10.1029/2025JC023212","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The spatial distribution and dynamics of glacial meltwater (MW) influence ocean circulation off and basal melt rate below Antarctic ice shelves. While previous studies described the MW distribution in Pine Island Bay off Pine Island Ice Shelf (PIIS), quantitative constraints on the spatial heterogeneity of the spread of MW associated with lateral mixing remain unknown. In this study, the distribution and spreading mechanisms of MW were investigated based on in situ observations using conductivity-temperature-depth and lowered acoustic Doppler current profiler measurements at 68 stations off PIIS and Thwaites Ice Shelf in summer 2020 (January–February). The composite tracer method was used to calculate the MW fraction using the properties of Winter Water, modified Circumpolar Deep Water, and MW. The results showed that the high-MW fractions were primarily distributed along two separate isopycnals (27.38<i>σ</i>_<i>θ</i> and 27.48<i>σ</i>_<i>θ</i>) near PIIS and along a deep isopycnal (27.48<i>σ</i>_<i>θ</i>) near TIS. Exponentially fitted line of MW fractions along the deeper (27.48<i>σ</i>_<i>θ</i>) isopycnal showed a much larger curvature and steeper slope near TIS than near PIIS. Based on the 1-dimensional advection–diffusion model, the results indicated stronger mixing off PIIS than TIS along 27.48<i>σ</i>_<i>θ</i>, and stronger mixing along 27.48<i>σ</i>_<i>θ</i> than 27.38<i>σ</i>_<i>θ</i> off PIIS. This study suggests that along-isopycnal MW mixing varies between ice shelves and between MW-rich isopycnals, improving our understanding of MW distribution and spreading patterns and the implications of these patterns for regional circulation.</p>","PeriodicalId":54340,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans","volume":"131 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2025JC023212","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147585285","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Record-Breaking Godzilla Dust Event: Triple Pathways and Divergent Chlorophyll-a Concentration Responses","authors":"Shan Qin,&nbsp;Wencai Wang,&nbsp;Qingzhe Zhu,&nbsp;Yundan Li,&nbsp;Libin Dong","doi":"10.1029/2025JC023726","DOIUrl":"10.1029/2025JC023726","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Dust aerosols play a vital role in marine ecosystems and the air-sea carbon exchange. In June 2020, a record-breaking Saharan “Godzilla” dust event occurred. Here, we analyzed its three-dimensional transport pathways and effects on chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) concentration in different sea areas. Results show that under the combined effects of the North Atlantic Subtropical High and the Mediterranean Low, the dust was transported along three distinct pathways: westward to the Atlantic Ocean, southeastward to the Indian Ocean, and northeastward to the Pacific Ocean. In these three oceanic study regions, the maximum daily dust deposition amounts were 141 mg m⁻², 90 mg m⁻², and 17 mg m⁻², respectively. However, the marine responses differed: compared to pre-deposition levels, Chl-a concentration increased by 30% in the Atlantic and 15% in the Indian, while in the Pacific, a brief increase was followed by an overall decline of 18%. This study reveals that a single dust event can be associated with opposing marine ecosystem responses, with phytoplankton growth enhanced in some regions and suppressed in others, which is attributed to variations in dust transport pathways and environmental factors. These findings highlight the complexity of dust impacts on marine ecosystems and the importance of improving the accuracy of future projections of ocean carbon sequestration potential.</p>","PeriodicalId":54340,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans","volume":"131 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147588598","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Global Spatial and Temporal Variability of the Oceanic Cool Skin Effect","authors":"Chong Jia,&nbsp;Peter J. Minnett","doi":"10.1029/2025JC023652","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2025JC023652","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The oceanic cool skin effect is characterized by a temperature depression between the ocean's submillimeter thermal skin layer (SST_skin) and the underlying water (SST_depth). This study evaluates the ability of the widely used Fairall et al. (1996), https://doi.org/10.1029/95jc03190 model (F96) to simulate the cool skin effect using surface forcing data from the Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA-2), validated against high-accuracy infrared radiometric measurements from the Marine-Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (M-AERI) and the Infrared Sea Surface Temperature Autonomous Radiometer (ISAR) collected during research cruises spanning diverse oceanic regions. Results show that F96 model simulations driven by MERRA-2 inputs generally match the observed skin effects, with mean biases of −0.03 to −0.04 K and standard deviations ∼0.1 K, attributed primarily to uncertainties in humidity, longwave radiative flux, and wind speed. A 24-year global analysis (2000–2023) revealed a mean cool skin effect of approximately −0.2 K, with pronounced spatial and seasonal variability. Strongest cooling (−0.3 K or more) occurs in regions such as western boundary currents during colder months, while the Southern Ocean shows much weaker skin effects (−0.1 K) due to persistent high wind speeds and reduced net heat loss. These results suggest that the commonly applied constant correction of −0.17 K in satellite SST_skin retrievals does not accurately represent the true magnitude and variability of the cool skin effect. A more accurate correction scheme incorporating latitude and seasonal dependence is recommended to improve the accuracy of satellite-derived SST_skin fields, and better support climate model applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":54340,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans","volume":"131 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2025JC023652","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147666225","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Seasonal Response of the Miocene Indonesian Throughflow to Orbital Forcing Buffered by an Open Seaway","authors":"Zhen Li,&nbsp;Yurui Zhang,&nbsp;Jilin Wei,&nbsp;Weipeng Zheng,&nbsp;Yuan Wang,&nbsp;Nan Dai,&nbsp;Jun Tian","doi":"10.1029/2025JC023315","DOIUrl":"10.1029/2025JC023315","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The Indonesian Throughflow (ITF) is a vital link between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, shaping Indo-Pacific climate dynamics. While its variability during the Quaternary is well documented, its response to orbital forcing under different tectonic configurations remains unclear. Using climate simulations with minimum and maximum boreal summer insolation, this study investigates how orbital forcing modulates the ITF seasonal cycle. The results show that orbital changes produce distinct two-phase seasonal ITF responses despite similar annual mean transport (difference within 1.0 Sv) under pre-industrial (PI) conditions. During the boreal summer insolation maximum, orbital-induced insolation changes amplify the boreal summer ITF from 16.9 Sv in the PI control condition to 18.0 Sv, while reducing the winter ITF by 3.6 Sv. These responses arise from changes in Pacific-Indian sea surface height gradients, modulated by wind anomalies and freshwater-salinity effects on inter-basin pressure gradients linked to ITCZ migration. In the Miocene context, this two-phase seasonal ITF response to orbital forcing is notably dampened. A more open Indonesian gateway—particularly the deepened New Guinea–Maluku passage—permits greater South Pacific inflow (∼91% vs. ∼20% in PI) and nearly doubles bidirectional exchange (23.9 Sv vs. 12.4 Sv in PI), with strong seasonal reversal flows. This enhanced connectivity buffers the ITF orbital-scaled variability by allowing more symmetric and continuous inter-basin exchange. These findings underscore how orbital forcing and seaway geometry jointly regulate tropical ocean circulation, offering insights for interpreting paleoceanographic records and understanding the Miocene climate system's response to orbital forcing.</p>","PeriodicalId":54340,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans","volume":"131 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147585010","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Global Spatial and Temporal Variability of the Oceanic Cool Skin Effect","authors":"Chong Jia,&nbsp;Peter J. Minnett","doi":"10.1029/2025JC023652","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2025JC023652","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The oceanic cool skin effect is characterized by a temperature depression between the ocean's submillimeter thermal skin layer (SST_skin) and the underlying water (SST_depth). This study evaluates the ability of the widely used Fairall et al. (1996), https://doi.org/10.1029/95jc03190 model (F96) to simulate the cool skin effect using surface forcing data from the Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA-2), validated against high-accuracy infrared radiometric measurements from the Marine-Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (M-AERI) and the Infrared Sea Surface Temperature Autonomous Radiometer (ISAR) collected during research cruises spanning diverse oceanic regions. Results show that F96 model simulations driven by MERRA-2 inputs generally match the observed skin effects, with mean biases of −0.03 to −0.04 K and standard deviations ∼0.1 K, attributed primarily to uncertainties in humidity, longwave radiative flux, and wind speed. A 24-year global analysis (2000–2023) revealed a mean cool skin effect of approximately −0.2 K, with pronounced spatial and seasonal variability. Strongest cooling (−0.3 K or more) occurs in regions such as western boundary currents during colder months, while the Southern Ocean shows much weaker skin effects (−0.1 K) due to persistent high wind speeds and reduced net heat loss. These results suggest that the commonly applied constant correction of −0.17 K in satellite SST_skin retrievals does not accurately represent the true magnitude and variability of the cool skin effect. A more accurate correction scheme incorporating latitude and seasonal dependence is recommended to improve the accuracy of satellite-derived SST_skin fields, and better support climate model applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":54340,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans","volume":"131 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2025JC023652","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147666192","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}