Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment最新文献

{"title":"Stability evaluation of rock slope considering the strength failure of weak structural planes induced by blasting vibration","authors":"Yuqi Zhang,&nbsp;Nan Jiang,&nbsp;Yingkang Yao,&nbsp;Chuanbo Zhou,&nbsp;Yan Wang","doi":"10.1007/s10064-026-05218-1","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10064-026-05218-1","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The main weak structural plane (WSP) of bedding slopes subjected to blasting vibration tends to undergo shear slip, and its stability evaluation is important for assessing slope dynamic stability. In this study, a theoretical model for vertically incident blasting P-waves propagating through a mixed-medium slope system, namely rock-WSP-rock-slope free surface, was established using wave function analysis to calculate the dynamic stress response of the WSP. Taking the WSP of a typical mine slope as the research object, laboratory specimens were prepared based on the in-situ structural plane composition. Using a self-developed shear strength tester for WSPs under stress-wave disturbance, the evolution of shear strength parameters, including cohesion and internal friction angle, was examined under different incident displacement amplitudes and loading durations. Combined with the physical and mechanical properties of the WSP, its dynamic stress and vibration velocity responses were obtained through theoretical calculations. By establishing a quantitative relationship between the dynamic stress response of the WSP and its post-disturbance shear strength, a factor-of-safety calculation model for WSP-controlled slope stability under blasting vibration was proposed. The results show that increasing loading duration and incident displacement amplitude lead to reductions in cohesion and internal friction angle. Under the investigated Mengku Iron Mine case, adopted analytical assumptions, and 50 Hz dominant-frequency condition, the calculated critical incident displacement amplitude is approximately 0.1 mm, corresponding to a model-derived slope-crest peak particle velocity (PPV) of approximately 2.14 cm/s.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":500,"journal":{"name":"Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment","volume":"85 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2026-08-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148837874","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Diffusion-attenuation characteristics of grout in water-bearing soft strata: a pressure-attenuation correction model accounting for hole depth effect","authors":"Ling Zeng,&nbsp;Yong-Chao Wang,&nbsp;Jing-Cheng Chen,&nbsp;Jie Liu,&nbsp;Li Yi,&nbsp;Jing Tang,&nbsp;Gui-Jin Zhang,&nbsp;Ming Fan,&nbsp;Cai-Ying Chen","doi":"10.1007/s10064-026-05255-w","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10064-026-05255-w","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Highly compressible and low permeability water-rich strata can cause uneven settlement and structural failure. While grouting effectively mitigates these issues, conventional theories often neglect the impact of hole depth on pressure attenuation and grout diffusion, leading to inaccurate predictions in deep-hole scenarios. To address this issue, Systematic underwater grouting tests were conducted using a self-designed device, utilizing soft soil from the Dongting Lake Basin and hydrophobic MS-1086E composite grout. Tests were performed at depths of 150 mm, 250 mm, and 350 mm. The evolution of soil stress, morphological characteristics of the grout mass, and grout diffusion behavior were analyzed and compared with theoretical predictions. Soil stress evolved through four phases: initial penetration, pressure accumulation, steady-state maintenance, and dissipation, with peak stress increasing 18.7% with depth. The consolidation body exhibits a multi-scale dendritic/reticular structure with uniform density and good cementation. Increasing hole depth induced nonlinear attenuation in grout volume and diffusion radius, reducing diffusion efficiency by 5.4% per 100 mm. This deviation highlights the limitations of classical models in deep holes. A pressure-attenuation corrected diffusion equation incorporating an experimental coefficient (α = 0.0084 mm⁻¹) was formulated, significantly enhancing prediction accuracy in deep-hole scenarios compared to traditional models. Soil stress evolved through four distinct phases, and the consolidation body exhibited a multi-scale dendritic/reticular structure with uniform density and good cementation. This research establishes a quantitative foundation for optimizing grouting parameters in water-bearing soft strata.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":500,"journal":{"name":"Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment","volume":"85 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2026-08-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148837442","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Development of solid–liquid coupled similar materials and failure mechanism analysis for fractured rock slopes under flood discharge atomization","authors":"Yu Chen,&nbsp;Huanling Wang,&nbsp;Haowen Hong,&nbsp;Hangsheng Ma,&nbsp;Song Li,&nbsp;Yue Zhang","doi":"10.1007/s10064-026-05268-5","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10064-026-05268-5","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Flood discharge atomized rainfall can rapidly alter the hydraulic and mechanical states of fractured rock slopes, yet its physical simulation is constrained by the difficulty of preparing materials that reproduce both mechanical and hydraulic similarity. To address this limitation, this study develops and validates a solid–liquid coupled similar material for fractured rock slope model testing. An orthogonal design was conducted using barite powder and quartz sand as aggregates and cement-gypsum as the binder to regulate density, stiffness, strength, and permeability. The prepared materials covered elastic modulus of 35⁓171 MPa, uniaxial compressive strength of 0.11⁓0.88 MPa, tensile strength of 17⁓123 kPa, cohesion of 24⁓88 kPa, internal friction angle of 26⁓49°, and permeability coefficient of 1.78 × 10–6⁓7.7 × 10–5 m/s. Sensitivity analysis showed that the mass ratio of binder to aggregate predominantly controlled stiffness and strength, whereas the mass ratio of water to aggregate and aggregate composition mainly governed pore structure and permeability. Regression models with <i>R</i>² values of 0.81⁓0.88 were established to support targeted material proportioning for bedrock, unloaded rock, and fracture zones. The developed materials were further applied to a physical model of the BDa Hydropower Station slope subjected to atomized rainfall. Monitoring results revealed a fracture-controlled hydraulic-mechanical failure process. Preferential infiltration induced rapid moisture accumulation at W2 and W3, pore pressure peaks of 2.0 and 1.8 kPa at P2 and P3, localized strength attenuation, erosion-gully coalescence, and progressive collapse from the slope toe toward the middle slope. These findings demonstrate that the developed material can effectively reproduce fracture guided seepage, water-induced softening, and progressive instability in fractured rock slopes, providing a practical experimental basis for evaluating slope stability under flood discharge atomization.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":500,"journal":{"name":"Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment","volume":"85 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2026-08-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148837873","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A JRC3D shear strength model considering failure surface spatial anisotropy of soft rock","authors":"Zhiyong Zheng,&nbsp;Jiashun Liu,&nbsp;Baoxin Jia,&nbsp;Dejun Liu,&nbsp;Xuefeng Zhang","doi":"10.1007/s10064-026-05286-3","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10064-026-05286-3","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The morphological characteristics of fracture surfaces play a critical role in governing the shear strength and failure behavior of jointed rock masses. However, conventional 2D roughness indices cannot adequately represent the three-dimensional (3D) spatial anisotropy of natural fractures, resulting in unreliable shear strength estimates and engineering designs in weak rock formations. In this study, triaxial compression tests were performed on weakly cemented soft rock (WCSR) specimens with bedding angles of 15°, 30°, and 45°, and 3D laser-scanning was employed to obtain detailed fracture surface morphology and generate spatial coordinate data. Two parameters, the fluctuation parameter (<i>F</i>_n) and directional parameter (<i>P</i>_D), were introduced to characterize 3D roughness, and a <i>JRC</i>^3D-<i>JCS</i> model was then developed based on Barton’s shear strength criterion. The derived <i>JRC</i>^3D increases linearly with <i>F</i>_n and exponentially with <i>P</i>_D, whereas <i>P</i>_D is more sensitive than <i>F</i>_n. The empirical model fits the experimental data well (<i>R</i>² = 0.977), with an average <i>JRC</i> prediction error of 2.4%. For peak shear strength prediction, the proposed model achieved a mean error of 3.2%, outperforming the Grasselli model (8.2%). Sampling-interval analysis indicates that both parameters remain stable for intervals up to 0.5 mm but deteriorate sharply beyond 0.8 mm. The proposed <i>JRC</i>^3D-<i>JCS</i> model provides an accurate and robust framework for predicting the shear strength of rock joints and offers practical guidance for fracture characterization in rock engineering applications.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":500,"journal":{"name":"Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment","volume":"85 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2026-08-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148837872","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental study on freezing-dynamic deterioration damage characteristics of joint-filled rock samples of cold regional open-pit slope","authors":"Sen Tian,&nbsp;Weirong Wu,&nbsp;Zhaolong Ge,&nbsp;Yongxin Li,&nbsp;Songying Li,&nbsp;Yuanheng Gong","doi":"10.1007/s10064-026-05270-x","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10064-026-05270-x","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Research on instability and disaster control of high-altitude alpine open-pit slopes is a core issue in geotechnical slope engineering. Based on a high slope project of a cold-region open pit in Xinjiang, China, this paper conducted theoretical analysis, laboratory rock mechanics tests and synchronous acoustic emission (AE) characteristic tests to investigate the damage deterioration characteristics of joint-filled rock samples with different joint inclination angles (0°, 25°, 50°, 75°) under the combined effect of freeze–thaw cycles and cyclic loading and unloading. The Gaussian mixture model was adopted to reveal the failure modes, crack distribution and evolutionary characteristics of rock samples. The results showed that freeze–thaw action accelerated the expansion of pore cracks inside rock samples and significantly deteriorated their mechanical properties, which mainly manifested as the decreases in the compressive strength and elastic modulus; axial strain, radial strain and Poisson’s ratio presented different variation trends with joint inclination angle and freeze–thaw damage degree. Under the coupling of freeze–thaw cycles and cyclic loading and unloading, rock specimens with larger joint inclinations showed superior anti-fatigue performance, while those with smaller joint angles experienced severe strength and stiffness attenuation. For instance, the strength and stiffness of the 25° joint-filled specimen decreased by 47.18% and 36.65%, respectively, while the 75° specimen had the minimum loss and withstood 13.5 cyclic loading levels. Obvious AE responses with Kaiser and Felicity effects existed in each loading stage, and rock specimens with larger joint inclination angles were more prone to shear failure.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":500,"journal":{"name":"Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment","volume":"85 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2026-08-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148837710","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Leveraging explainable artificial intelligence and ensemble learning as surrogate models for slope stability evaluation","authors":"Satyam Tiwari,&nbsp;Sarat Kumar Das","doi":"10.1007/s10064-026-05263-w","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10064-026-05263-w","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Slope failures are the leading cause of significant casualties and financial losses, despite technological advancements. Digital Twin has become an essential tool for real-time monitoring and decision-making, particularly for the complex problems related to slope stability. Data-driven algorithms have proven to be efficient surrogate models for Digital Twins as an alternative to the existing limit equilibrium and finite element analysis. In this study, ensemble learning algorithms are employed to predict the factor of safety (<i>FoS</i>) of the slopes, and Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) methods are used to improve the model interpretability. The findings of the study are aimed at identifying key features important for effective monitoring of slopes in the field, showing that XAI findings align well with established physical principles of slope. A comprehensive field database containing 497 unique slope cases consisting of both manmade and natural slopes with circular failure conditions is utilised in this study for model development and verification. Soil unit weight (<i>γ</i>), soil cohesion (<i>c</i>), internal friction angle (<i>ϕ</i>), slope angle (<i>β</i>), slope height (<i>H</i>), and pore pressure ratio (<i>r</i>_<i>u</i>) are taken as primary input parameters. Notably, features <i>H, c,</i> and <i>β</i> are consistently ranked as the most important features across models, highlighting their crucial function in slope stability. A structured approach is used to rank the models, showing that combining ensemble learning and XAI within Digital Twin framework can lead to safer, data-driven decisions for slope stability issues.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":500,"journal":{"name":"Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment","volume":"85 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2026-08-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148837644","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reinforcing mechanism of plastic film fibers in municipal solid waste: CT imaging of orientation distribution under various loading conditions","authors":"Yanan Sun,&nbsp;Jianyong Shi,&nbsp;Chao Liu,&nbsp;Yuchen Zhang,&nbsp;Gaojie Xu","doi":"10.1007/s10064-026-05285-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10064-026-05285-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Plastic films randomly distributed in landfills can enhance soil strength through friction and interlocking. However, the evolution of their orientation distribution under varying loads and the methods to quantify such effects remain poorly understood. This study employed X-ray computed tomography (CT) to characterize the spatial distribution of plastic film fibers under confining pressures of 50–150 kPa. A reinforcement calculation method was developed that explicitly accounts for fiber shape, tensile properties, and measured distribution characteristics. Results showed that the gamma distribution effectively described the bimodal and skewed angle distributions of fibers. Empirical relationships between distribution parameters (<span>(a)</span>, <span>(b)</span>) and applied load (<span>(P)</span>) were established (R² &gt; 0.90), and a functional expression relating orientation angle <span>(theta)</span> to <span>(P)</span> was proposed. The framework predicted strength parameters for 0.2% mass content of films as <span>(c)</span>= 19.08 kPa and <span>(varphi)</span>= 34°, closely matching experimental values (<span>(c)</span>= 18.11 kPa, <span>(varphi)</span>= 34.2°), with relative errors of 5.4% and 0.58%, respectively. These results demonstrate the feasibility of quantifying the reinforcement contribution of plastic film fibers in landfill soils under the tested conditions.</p><h3>Graphical Abstract</h3><div><figure><div><div><picture><source><img></source></picture></div></div></figure></div></div>","PeriodicalId":500,"journal":{"name":"Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment","volume":"85 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2026-08-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148837712","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical modeling of excavation-induced fracturing in rock foundations: a case study from the tectonically active Zagros Region","authors":"Mohammad Ijani,&nbsp;Ebrahim Rahimi,&nbsp;Ali Faghih,&nbsp;Vahab Sarfarazi","doi":"10.1007/s10064-026-05269-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10064-026-05269-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Excavation in fractured rock masses often induces stress redistribution and progressive fracturing, which can jeopardize the stability of engineering foundations. This study develops a three-dimensional Discrete Element Method (DEM) model using the Flat-Joint contact law in PFC3D to simulate excavation-induced crack initiation and propagation within the sandstone formations of the Madar anticline, southwest Iran. Micro-mechanical parameters were calibrated through iterative back-analysis of uniaxial compression (UCS = 39.59 MPa) and Brazilian tensile strength (BTS = 4.82 MPa) tests, achieving less than 7% deviation from laboratory results. Staged excavation was simulated in three sequential 2.5 m steps, enabling realistic stress release and fracture coalescence. The results show that tensile cracking dominated during the first stage, accompanied by a surface displacement of about 3.6 cm, while progressive shear coalescence in the second stage increased displacement up to 8 cm; the final stage exhibited partial stress relaxation with displacements below 1.5 cm. The simulated fracture propagation followed the orientation of the predefined field-based discontinuities, showing consistent fracture reactivation rather than an independent prediction of fracture orientation. Localized tensile stresses exceeding 3.2 MPa occurred near the excavation front, explaining early microcrack nucleation. The results demonstrate qualitative agreement between the DEM–FJM simulations and field observations based on fracture distribution, displacement magnitude and crack evolution.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":500,"journal":{"name":"Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment","volume":"85 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2026-08-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148837714","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Analysis of snow avalanche dynamics in different types based on numerical simulation: A case study in the northern Himalayas, Tibet","authors":"Pingping Zhang,&nbsp;Bin Li,&nbsp;Yang Gao,&nbsp;Haoyuan Gao,&nbsp;Jiawei Wan,&nbsp;Hai Huang","doi":"10.1007/s10064-026-05219-0","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10064-026-05219-0","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Avalanches are complex natural hazards whose dynamics and destructive capacity vary widely with snowpack properties, terrain, and climate. This study investigates the formation characteristics, mechanisms, and dynamic responses of different avalanche types in the northern Himalayas of Tibet. Field observations, including video monitoring and snow property measurements, were conducted to characterize avalanche development and obtain key physical parameters. Based on measured snow density and cohesion, numerical simulations using the Rapid Mass Movement Simulation (RAMMS) model were performed to compare the dynamic characteristics of powder, flow, and slab avalanches. The effects of erosion entrainment and terrain conditions on avalanche dynamics and impact pressure were further evaluated. Results indicate that powder avalanches are characterized by high mobility, short movement duration, and relatively low impact pressure due to weak basal interaction and limited erosion capacity. Slab avalanches exhibit stronger destructive potential, with higher impact pressure and more pronounced erosion-induced volume amplification resulting from their dense structure. Flow avalanches show intermediate dynamic characteristics between powder and slab avalanches. The simulations further reveal that accounting for erosion processes alters avalanche motion and affects predicted velocity and impact pressure. Moreover, terrain characteristics strongly regulate avalanche impact pressure, with steep, concave, and smooth terrains promoting higher impact forces, whereas gentle, convex, and rough terrains reduce impact intensity. This study improves understanding of the dynamic mechanisms and destructive effects across avalanche types. It provides a scientific basis for avalanche risk assessment and the optimization of mitigation strategies in the northern Himalayas region of Tibet.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":500,"journal":{"name":"Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment","volume":"85 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2026-08-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148783320","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Excess pore water pressure buildup and shear modulus degradation of liquefiable sand in strain-controlled cyclic triaxial tests","authors":"Yung-Yen Ko,&nbsp;Bo-Ru Chou,&nbsp;Po-Hsiang Chiang","doi":"10.1007/s10064-026-05271-w","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10064-026-05271-w","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>To better understand the behavior of liquefiable sand during the process of liquefaction, strain-controlled cyclic triaxial tests were performed on saturated poorly graded fine sand. Specimens with relative densities (<span>({D}_{r})</span>) from loose to medium-dense states were tested under various effective confining pressures (<span>({sigma}_{o}^{^{prime}})</span>) corresponding to an overburden depth &lt; ~ 10 m. Results show that the excess pore water pressure (EPWP) buildup versus loading cycles (<span>(N)</span>) depends on <span>({D}_{r})</span>, <span>({sigma}_{o}^{^{prime}})</span>, and the cyclic shear strain amplitude (<span>({gamma}_{c})</span>). Moreover, a certain threshold of <span>({gamma}_{c})</span> is required for liquefaction-level EPWP buildup within realistic earthquake loading cycles; this threshold also depends on <span>({D}_{r})</span> and <span>({sigma}_{o}^{^{prime}})</span>. Using the modified two-step parameter calibration procedure, these relationships are satisfactorily approximated by the Vucetic–Dobry EPWP generation model. The shear modulus decreases with increasing <span>({gamma}_{c})</span> and <span>(N)</span>, reflecting its link to EPWP buildup; accordingly, normalized relationships between shear modulus degradation and EPWP buildup are established. This degradation accelerates with increasing EPWP buildup and becomes substantial near liquefaction, aligning with existing laboratory cyclic loading tests on similar materials. Notably, these normalized relationships exhibit little dependency on <span>({D}_{r})</span> and <span>({sigma}_{o}^{^{prime}})</span>. However, such soil modulus degradation can differ significantly from the reduction in soil resistances to foundations observed in foundation loading tests. Hence, varying degrees of liquefaction-induced soil degradation across different engineering applications should be incorporated into seismic design.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":500,"journal":{"name":"Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment","volume":"85 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2026-08-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148783219","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}