International Journal of Law and Psychiatry最新文献

{"title":"Attitudes and ethical beliefs of Russian psychiatrists towards the use of coercive treatment practices","authors":"Andrew Stickley ,&nbsp;Roman Koposov ,&nbsp;Johan Isaksson ,&nbsp;Tomiki Sumiyoshi ,&nbsp;Oleg A. Ponomarev ,&nbsp;Vladislav Ruchkin","doi":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102142","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102142","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In many countries little is known about the attitudes and ethical beliefs of practicing psychiatrists towards the use of coercive practices. This is true as regards Russia where coercion was used for political purposes during the Soviet period. However, substantial changes have occurred in the psychiatric system in recent decades with a focus on patients' rights and the idea of consent. This study aimed to investigate the beliefs and attitudes of Russian psychiatrists towards coercive treatment practices in situations of clinical decision making. Data were obtained from 93 (81 % of all practicing) psychiatrists in the Arkhangelsk region in northwestern Russia. The psychiatrists completed three case vignettes to obtain information regarding the use of coercive treatment practices in different clinical situations, and responded to an ethical attitudes inventory. The psychiatrists' decisions regarding coercive treatment, and the extent of information provided to the patients and their relatives were impacted by the severity and risks (violence, suicidality) associated with the patient's disorder. In most instances psychiatrists were not responsive to pressure from the patient's family or other hospital personnel. Very few gender differences in attitudes and practices were found. Psychiatrists generally reported that they encountered different situations with abusive practices primarily in the past. This study suggests that the factors associated with the use of coercive treatment practices by Russian psychiatrists may mirror those in other countries. Further research should elucidate the actual extent to which coercive practices are used in Russian psychiatry and delineate the factors associated with their actual use.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":47930,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Law and Psychiatry","volume":"104 ","pages":"Article 102142"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145011221","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Addressing insanity in paedophilic disorder: The need for a cognitive approach for forensic assessment to correctly identify idiopathic, acquired and iatrogenic forms","authors":"Alexa Schincariol ,&nbsp;Liisa Camilla Gatto ,&nbsp;Georgia Zara ,&nbsp;Pietro Pietrini ,&nbsp;Giuseppe Sartori ,&nbsp;Stefano Ferracuti ,&nbsp;Cristina Scarpazza","doi":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102164","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102164","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Assessing insanity in individuals with paedophilic disorder presents unique challenges, particularly due to the diverse aetiologies of the condition, which lead to varying symptomatology and behavioural manifestations. To address this complexity, in this article we overview the characteristics of three variants of paedophilic disorder – idiopathic, acquired, and iatrogenic – and highlight the key obstacles in differentiating these forms, resulting in inconsistent and, at times, biased judicial outcomes. Through the analysis of three real-life case studies, we illustrate how forensic evaluations must go beyond a one-size-fits-all approach, integrating neuropsychological and neuroimaging assessment to provide more precise determinations of criminal responsibility. We therefore propose a cognitive model for the forensic assessment of insanity that emphasises the role of scientific evidence in distinguishing cases in which neurological conditions or medical treatments significantly impair volitional and cognitive capacities. In such cases, incarceration may be inappropriate, as incarceration hinders rehabilitation, while treatment in specialised non-custodial facilities could better address the underlying condition and reduce the risk of recidivism. In our analysis, we argue for the inclusion of a criterion in the DSM to ensure that the symptoms of paedophilic disorders are not due to substance effects or other medical conditions. Finally, we propose guidelines for forensic assessments of insanity in child sexual offences that support a multidisciplinary approach based on the cognitive model. In this framework, behavioural analysis, neuropsychological assessment, and (if necessary) neuroimaging techniques are combined to assess how the condition affects self-determination, ultimately leading to more accurate and scientifically informed legal decisions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":47930,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Law and Psychiatry","volume":"104 ","pages":"Article 102164"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145579284","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The importation model mediated: New evidence for security threat group in the prediction of prison misconduct","authors":"Matt DeLisi ,&nbsp;H. Daniel Butler ,&nbsp;Ben Stickle ,&nbsp;Brendan D. Dooley","doi":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102163","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102163","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study explores the importation model's role in predicting prison misconduct, emphasizing the mediating effect of security threat group membership. Our analysis draws upon archival data from 636 individuals on death row in California. Structural equation modeling examined relationships between pre-prison characteristics—such as psychopathy, age at first arrest, and prior prisons sentences—and prison misconduct. Findings reveal that security threat group membership significantly mediates the impact of psychopathy and age at first arrest on misconduct, accounting for 60 % and 79 % of their respective effects. Moreover, security threat group membership is strongly associated with institutional misconduct, highlighting its role as a critical factor in prison disorder. The results suggest that pre-prison experiences and security threat group involvement should be integral to risk assessments and management strategies of correctional clients. These insights contribute to understanding prison dynamics and offer practical guidance for improving institutional security and reducing misconduct through targeted interventions addressing security threat group activities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":47930,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Law and Psychiatry","volume":"104 ","pages":"Article 102163"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145579283","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Cross-views between the roles of the therapist and the expert in forensic psychology/psychiatry: A qualitative study","authors":"Maurice W.D. Stauffacher ,&nbsp;Silke Grabherr ,&nbsp;Stefan Kaiser ,&nbsp;Yvan Jeanneret ,&nbsp;Valérie Moulin","doi":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102162","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102162","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Aims of the study</h3><div>Forensic psychology/psychiatry seems particularly subject to ethical tensions, as it involves not only the expert-evaluee or therapist-patient relationships, but also the judicial authorities. This exploratory study aims to identify the professional roles—namely the identity and posture—of both the expert and the therapist within the medico-legal field, with a view to uncovering potential ethical tensions that may arise in the transition from one role to the other.</div></div><div><h3>Method</h3><div>This exploratory qualitative study was conducted through two research focus groups: one composed of forensic psychiatry experts, and the other of clinical therapists in a Swiss university hospital. We performed a narrative and thematic analysis based on the verbatim transcripts to compare the two groups.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>In therapists' discourse, patient support and guidance were central concerns. In the expert witnesses' discourse, the investigation was central. Regarding the ethical posture, therapists emphasised the importance of adjusting to their patients' situations, and the experts mainly cited the bioethical principles of beneficence, non-maleficence, equity and autonomy. The transition from the role of therapist to expert involves the relinquishment of the supportive and guiding function in favour of an investigative posture serving judicial authority, within a limited time frame.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Our study suggests that tensions may emerge when transitioning between the roles of therapists and experts, particularly concerning issues such as confidentiality, beneficence, and the principles of objectivity and neutrality. Moreover, all participants in both focus groups suggested that prior therapeutic experience was an asset for experts, particularly if they were able to relinquish any therapeutic function.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":47930,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Law and Psychiatry","volume":"104 ","pages":"Article 102162"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145525601","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Factors influencing decision-making capacity assessments in involuntary care and treatment in Norway: A qualitative exploration of multi-stakeholder perspectives","authors":"Jacob Jorem ,&nbsp;Reidun Førde ,&nbsp;Tonje Lossius Husum ,&nbsp;Jørgen Dahlberg ,&nbsp;Reidar Pedersen","doi":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102157","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102157","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Decision-making capacity (DMC) is a widely used criterion in health laws to balance respect for patient autonomy with protection from the potential consequences of treatment decisions. In 2017, lacking DMC was introduced as an additional criterion for involuntary care and treatment following comprehensive amendments to the Norwegian Mental Health Care Act. Despite the amendments aiming to reduce involuntary care and treatment rates, national health registry data indicate continued rising rates along the pre-2017 trajectory after an initial reduction in 2017. While previous studies suggesting varying DMC assessment quality, little is known about the potential factors influencing these variations.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>To identify factors influencing DMC assessments after introducing a capacity-based mental health law governing involuntary care and treatment.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>60 purposively sampled stakeholders, including patients, families, health professionals, and lawyers, participated in semi-structured interviews and focus groups in 2018, with 26 of these participating in follow-up interviews in 2022–23. The transcribed interviews were analysed using thematic analysis.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Data analysis generated four themes: 1) available resources' influence on DMC assessments; 2) health professionals' values and practices regarding involuntary care; 3) legal interpretations by supervisory bodies regarding involuntary care; and 4) political signals from the health authorities regarding involuntary care.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>DMC assessments appear to be influenced by several factors, including resource availability, health professionals' values and practices, legal interpretations by supervisory bodies, and political signals from health authorities. Combined with a lack of systematic training and validated tools, these factors may have raised the threshold for accessing mental healthcare beyond what systematic DMC assessments would suggest, contributing to increased illness severity among patients and rising involuntary care rates post-2017. Further research is needed to better understand the complex dynamics involved in DMC assessments and how to effectively implement capacity-based health laws.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":47930,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Law and Psychiatry","volume":"104 ","pages":"Article 102157"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145267636","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Abolition: Is this the only pathway to upholding human rights and ensuring epistemic justice in psychiatry? A key informant qualitative study","authors":"Cath Roper ,&nbsp;Nina Joffee-Kohn ,&nbsp;Vrinda Edan ,&nbsp;Natasha Swingler ,&nbsp;Piers Gooding ,&nbsp;Bridget Hamilton","doi":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102160","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102160","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Introduction</h3><div>Mental health legislation authorises involuntary psychiatric intervention in certain circumstances. Although human rights concerns are becoming more prominent, debates among legal experts, clinicians and activists continue to swirl around people's rights to equal recognition before the law, such as described in the (United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with disabilities, 2006).</div></div><div><h3>Aim</h3><div>This qualitative descriptive study aimed to better understand diverse views of people known to hold a critique of coercion in mental health services, on the practical expression of upholding human rights in the context of mental health laws.</div></div><div><h3>Method</h3><div>Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 key informants from five different countries and data was analysed using an inductive, thematic approach.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Overall, informants characterised mental health laws as discriminatory, harmful and unjustifiable. Three themes and six sub-themes were identified. This study reports on the major themes which include: an ethical position (focusing on the present harms associated with mental health laws), strategies, (an expression of the opportunity to bring about change) and a visionary position. We explore these three features in the views of key informants as important positions in the field of abolition, and analyse each for the ‘hermeneutic resources’ – forms of collective interpretive resources - they provide.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Abolition of mental health laws is often seen as not feasible in the context of psychiatry. However, abolition theories and practices are hermeneutic resources that need to be better understood because they offer social justice and community-led solutions beyond mental health laws and systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":47930,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Law and Psychiatry","volume":"104 ","pages":"Article 102160"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145424866","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Developmental factors in forensic assessments of children over the minimum age of criminal responsibility: A study of forensic reports in Norway 2013–2024","authors":"Kari Eriksen Øverland ,&nbsp;Kevin S. Douglas ,&nbsp;Elisabeth Norman ,&nbsp;A. Linda Gröning","doi":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102154","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102154","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Despite the international recognition of children's evolving capacities and the importance of incorporating these factors into forensic assessments, there is limited research on forensic practices specific to children above the minimum age of criminal responsibility (MACR). The current study is part of a larger project examining legal and forensic assessments related to children's criminal unaccountability (criminal insanity) in Norway. The aim of the current study was to examine how forensic assessments of children above the MACR are conducted in Norway, and to what extent developmental factors are considered in these assessments. Drawing on existing literature, we first propose a set of principles for developmentally informed forensic assessments of children. The principles address direct expert-child interaction; structured assessment procedures; collateral/contextual information; cultural responsiveness; and the qualifications of forensic experts. We then evaluated 122 forensic assessments of children aged 15 to 18 years according to the proposed principles. Our findings revealed significant gaps, including minimal direct engagement with the child, low usage of structured assessment tools, limited collateral information from caregivers and schools, lack of cultural considerations and a concerning lack of child-specific expertise among forensic experts. These shortcomings underscore the need for more rigorous and developmentally sensitive practices. Recommendations include enhanced training, incorporating developmental principles into curricula, and establishing standardized protocols integrating structured assessment tools and comprehensive contextual information. While conducted in a Norwegian context, our study calls for further research in other jurisdictions to develop international guidelines that accommodate the unique developmental needs of children in forensic settings.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":47930,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Law and Psychiatry","volume":"104 ","pages":"Article 102154"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145110034","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Psychiatric evaluations for adolescent offenders with delinquency in Taiwan","authors":"Yu-Ning Her ,&nbsp;Ya-Hsuan Wang ,&nbsp;Da-Yuan Ma ,&nbsp;Chieh Chang ,&nbsp;Fan-Jung Wan ,&nbsp;Nian-Sheng Tzeng","doi":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102156","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102156","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The aim of this study is to investigate the psychiatric evaluations for juvenile offenders.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>A total of 166 juvenile offenders were enrolled in this study. After diagnostic psychiatric interviews for 166 juvenile offenders, three groups of academic achievement (normal, academically challenged, and those suspended/dropouts from school). Different offenses, including those were against people, property, related to illicit drugs, or related to sex and delinquency and mental illness were also recorded. The relationship among the mental illness, types of offenses, and academic achievement was analyzed.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>In this study, 89.76 % of juvenile offenders reported educational achievement problems and 89.76 % of them had psychiatric disorders. The educational achievement with regard to the types of offenses (<em>p</em> &lt; 0.001) or specific mental illness (<em>p</em> &lt; 0.001). Juvenile offenders who <del>were</del> lagged behind in school performance showed more offenses against property (56.48 %), and more ADHD and conduct disorder (ADHD only: 36.11 %. ADHD with conduct: 12.04 %. ADHD with mood disorder: 11.11 %. Conduct disorder: 14.81 %). Those who dropped out of school showed more offenses against people and more mood disorder (mood disorder only: 24.39 %. Mood disorder with ADHD: 24.39 %). For those without academic challenges, the most common offenses were related to sex.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>These findings revealed that often times juvenile offenses are related to psychiatric disorders and school problems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":47930,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Law and Psychiatry","volume":"104 ","pages":"Article 102156"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145151420","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Recidivism among forensic psychiatric patients undergoing outpatient treatment for mental health disorders – A meta-analysis","authors":"Panagiota Bali ,&nbsp;Fotios Chatzinikolaou ,&nbsp;Evangelia Karachaliou ,&nbsp;Jakub Lickiewicz ,&nbsp;Tella Lantta ,&nbsp;Konstantinos Tasios ,&nbsp;Vasiliki Efstathiou ,&nbsp;Athanasios Douzenis","doi":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102155","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102155","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Introduction</h3><div>The risk for general or criminal recidivism in forensic psychiatric patients has not been extensively investigated in the literature. The aim of this review is to evaluate criminal recidivism among forensic patients with mental disorders undergoing some type of outpatient treatment.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>In this review, we utilized PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library to search for studies published from January 1990 up to July 2024. Eligible studies should i) evaluate forensic patients with mental health conditions, ii) evaluate patients undergoing outpatient treatment, and iii) evaluate criminal recidivism (general, sexual, or violent) as a primary outcome. Recidivism was also compared between groups when reported.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Overall, 12 clinical studies including 3271 patients were evaluated. Of these, 3048 patients undergoing outpatient treatment were analyzed. The mean age of all patients was 23.4 years (SD = 6.3), and 79.7 %. were male. The mean follow-up was 33.82 months. Overall, the pooled proportion for general recidivism was 39.1 % (95 % CI: 25 %–54.3 %), and for violent recidivism was 21.7 % (95 % CI: 2.6 %–52.3 %; data from four studies). In group comparisons (data from five studies), there was no difference between patients under treatment and the control groups as far as general recidivism (OR = 0.489; 95 % CI [0.202–1.183]; <em>P</em> = 0.112), and violent recidivism (OR = 0.283; 95 % CI [0.056–1.416]; <em>P</em> = 0.124) were concerned.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>The general and violent recidivism rates are high among forensic patients undergoing outpatient treatment for mental health disorders. There was no difference between outpatient treatment and control groups regarding their effect on recidivism. However, most of the studies reviewed did not provide information about drug treatment; more comparative studies focusing on pharmacotherapy are needed to verify any benefits of outpatient treatment.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":47930,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Law and Psychiatry","volume":"104 ","pages":"Article 102155"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145201803","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Forensic psychiatry assessment and human rights in Ukraine: response to Butenko et al's paper ‘Forensic psychiatry misuse in proceedings of administrative offenses’ (2023)Type of submission","authors":"Vladimir Zaichenko","doi":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102158","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijlp.2025.102158","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The paper by Butenko et al., ‘Forensic psychiatry misuse in proceedings of administrative offenses’ (<em>International Journal of Law and Psychiatry,</em> 2023) focused on the ‘Case of Zaichenko v. Ukraine (No. 2)’ in the European Court of Human Rights (2015). As the applicant in that case, I wish to respond to the paper by adding further context and detail to the arguments presented. My concerns centre on four areas: findings of national courts, errors and gaps in the European Court of Human Rights judgment, the constitutional consequences of mistranslation, and the broader legal chain of events. Overall, my response to all these circumstances is that intellectuals fear judges as fire, while lawyers fear knowledge and intellectuals. To explain such mutual fear only deepens the horror. This explanation may be correct and precise, but it is also too general. A more concrete half-answer might be this: let us recall (a) the overall number of cases before the Court; (b) the number of judges; (c) the principles of European Court of Human Rights staff recruitment; (d) the frequent incompatibility of member states' normative systems; and (e) their linguistic, confessional, and cultural diversity. Add to this the contradictions of regulation itself, and ordinary human weaknesses. Regulation today has grown to a scale that no single mind can contain, and is produced, not by Solons or Pericles, but by lesser hands. In such conditions, the individual who turns to the Court is often lost behind the informational avalanche. Whom or what can one trust, if not the Court's final judgment? Here I will not appeal to Popper or Lakatos, but only to a much older Athenian, himself once persecuted by a court: ‘Question everything’.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":47930,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Law and Psychiatry","volume":"104 ","pages":"Article 102158"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145245549","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}