Water Research最新文献

{"title":"Interpretable machine learning reveals the importance of geography and landscape arrangement for surface water quality across China","authors":"Kerong Huo, Wangzheng Shen, Junchong Wei, Liang Zhang, Qingyu Feng, Yanhua Zhuang, Sisi Li","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123578","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.123578","url":null,"abstract":"Elucidating the influence of land use patterns on surface water quality is crucial for effective watershed management. Despite numerous studies in individual watersheds, factors influencing water quality in diverse geographical environments are less understood due to data and methodological constraints in large-scale studies. This study employs Interpretable Machine Learning (IML) to explore the drivers of water quality variations across 234 watersheds in China. Results reveal that urban land is the primary source of nitrogen pollution, while rural residences contribute substantially to phosphorus pollution. Water bodies are key sinks for both nutrients. Climate and land use compositions show substantial variations across watersheds with distinct geographical locations. These geography-related factors together contributed 82%-89% relative importance to water quality variations across China, implicating the dominant role of geography in shaping water quality. Additionally, the spatial arrangements of source-sink landscapes exhibit greater variations within the same geographic zone, whose impact on water quality is also inevitable. This highlights the potential to enhance water quality via optimizing landscape spatial arrangements given current land use composition and production routines that have been adapted to geographical conditions. Our study demonstrates the utility of IML in discerning key factors affecting water quality in large-scale assessments, offering valuable insights for targeted watershed management strategies.","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"72 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":12.8,"publicationDate":"2025-03-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143736469","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Environmental Risk of Heterogeneous Oxidation is Unneglectable: Time-Resolved Assessments beyond Typical Intermediate Investigation","authors":"Zijie Xiao, Bowen Yang, Xiaochi Feng, Kai Sheng, Hongtao Shi, Chenyi Jiang, Pengrui Jin, Yu Tao, Wanqian Guo, Bart Van der Bruggen, Qilin Li, Nanqi Ren","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123572","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.123572","url":null,"abstract":"The safety of advanced oxidation processes is paramount, surpassing treatment efficiency concerns. However, current research is limited to the qualitative toxicity investigations of targeted contaminants by-products, while the detoxification effects of heterogeneous advanced oxidation processes are largely unknown. Here we propose an environmental risk assessment that distinguishes between preferred oxidation pathways of the detoxification effects, thereby selecting the most suitable treatment system for each contaminant. Through environmental risk analyses based on the by-product quantification, more than 40% of previously overlooked toxicity has been rediscovered, significantly improving the accuracy of contaminant detoxification evaluation. The by-products contributed risk mostly reached the maximum after 30 min of reaction, evenly distributed on aquatic indicators but largely originated from on radical oxidation pathways. Density functional theory is applied to determine the generation probability of isomers, and deep neural network regression modelling accelerated derivation on structural transformation of toxic molecules. Furthermore, an evaluation system is established using risk quotients and cluster analysis classification modelling, enabling the quantitative cross-comparison in oxidation systems. This approach enhances the understanding of the safety and efficiency within oxidation processes, introducing various new methods supporting quantitative environmental risk assessment of emerging contaminant degradation in complicated heterogeneous oxidation processes.","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"72 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":12.8,"publicationDate":"2025-03-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143734381","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Enhanced hybrid capacitive performance for efficient and selective potassium extraction from wastewater: Insights from regulating electrode potential","authors":"Xuan Zhao, Dan Li, Linghui Deng, Ying Chen, Shujie Hu, Mengyue Zhang, Di Wu, Hong Liu, Yuan Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123570","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.123570","url":null,"abstract":"Prussian blue analogues hold great promise for directly extracting potassium resource from wastewater via hybrid capacitive deionization (HCDI). However, there remain unresolved scientific issues regarding low efficiency and selectivity arising from asymmetric potential distribution induced by spontaneous charge matching. This work systematically investigated the underlying mechanisms for enhancing the storage capacity and specific affinity of representative Berlin Green towards K⁺ through precise regulation of insertion potential during HCDI operation. Empowered by controlling electrochemical intercalation behaviors, the compatibility between ionic and electronic kinetics was significantly enhanced. Impressive values of 160.12 mg/g, 61.27%, and 0.07 kWh/mol were achieved under potentiostatic mode (0.1 V vs. Ag/AgCl) for insertion capacity, charge efficiency, and energy consumption, respectively. These results significantly outperformed the optimal levels obtained under constant cell voltage (0.9 V), which were 128.52 mg/g, 47.50%, and 0.12 kWh/mol, respectively. In both aqueous solution with binary components and urine, the results emphasized the potential of the synergy effect between lattice hindrance and insertion chemistry in promoting intercalation selectivity, with the highest selectivity coefficients of 28.35 (K⁺/Na⁺), 76.22 (K⁺/Ca²⁺) and 175.12 (K⁺/Mg²⁺), respectively. The presented concept-to-proof offers a versatile approach for the advancement of high-performance HCDI and paves the way towards its sustainable application in nutrient recycling from natural waters or wastewaters.","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"66 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":12.8,"publicationDate":"2025-03-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143734382","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Trade-off between pathogen control and seed viability: Engineering hydrothermal wastewater towards agricultural sustainable development and food security","authors":"Cheng Luo ,&nbsp;Leli Zhang ,&nbsp;Maojiong Cao ,&nbsp;Linyan Zhang ,&nbsp;Yongdong Xu ,&nbsp;Zhidan Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123567","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123567","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Ensuring the balance between pathogen control and seed viability is critical for advancing sustainable agricultural practices. Hydrothermal liquefaction aqueous phase (HTL-AP), a renewable byproduct of biomass processing, exhibits promising antifungal properties but poses challenges due to its concentration-dependent phytotoxicity. Here we report trade-off and tailored protocol for simultaneously efficient antifungal and seed growth via engineering HTL-AP based disinfectant. Employing wheat and cabbage seeds contaminated with pathogenic fungi as representative crop seeds, HTL-AP achieved complete inhibition of fungal growth at a concentration of 4.8 %, whereas seed viability was negatively impacted by HTL-AP at low dilution ratios (i.e., × 1, × 2). Customized disinfection protocols were developed tailored to different seeds, involving adjustments of HTL-AP concentration, exposure time, and wash post-treatment, in order to achieve the optimal trade off, comparable to that of conventional disinfectants. The multifaceted disinfection mechanisms of HTL-AP were discussed, including cell membrane disruption, metabolic pathways interference, and enzyme system damage. This study underscores the significance for a customized strategy in both pathogen reduction and the promotion of plant health. By engineering a renewable HTL-AP reagent, this research advances sustainable agricultural practices and bolsters global food security.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"281 ","pages":"Article 123567"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143734212","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Turning waste into resource: Metal framework-scale composite cathode overcomes limitations of low efficiency and cathode failure in electrochemical water softening","authors":"Jie Zhou ,&nbsp;Yuexin Chang ,&nbsp;Weijia Li ,&nbsp;Mingtao Li ,&nbsp;Duowen Yang ,&nbsp;Liu Yang ,&nbsp;Bo Jiang ,&nbsp;Wei Yan ,&nbsp;Hao Xu ,&nbsp;Xing Xu","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123549","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123549","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Despite years of development, electrochemical water softening continues to face challenges in achieving high softening efficiency and maintaining long-term cathode stability. To address these issues, this study builds upon the characteristics of membrane-free electrochemical water softening and prior research by employing a large-pore stainless steel filter as the cathode. During extended operation, a fluffy, porous scale layer gradually forms on the cathode surface, transforming the stainless-steel filter into a metal framework-scale composite (MF-S) cathode. This composite cathode enhances OH⁻ enrichment and extraction, improving water softening efficiency. Additionally, the soft scale deposited on the cathode's pores and surface can be partially removed through simple backflushing, extending system's operational lifespan. Experimental results indicate that using a stainless-steel cathode with 15×10 mm pore size, the effluent pH exceeds 11.0 after 18 h of operation, with a Ca²⁺ hardness removal rate of over 97 %. To prevent clogging of the cathode pores during extended operation, backflushing is conducted every 25 h to remove scale. Remarkably, after 700 h of continuous operation, there is no observed decline in hardness removal efficiency, and the cathode remains functional, allowing the water softening process to continue. Electrochemical tests and finite element simulations reveal that the composite cathode significantly outperforms the stainless-steel filter cathode in generating and enriching OH⁻. The proposed composite cathode demonstrates strong practical potential, offering a new perspective for applying membrane-free, high-efficiency electrochemical water softening processes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"281 ","pages":"Article 123549"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143734213","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Are we underestimating the driving factors and potential risks of freshwater microplastics from in situ and in silico perspective?","authors":"Xiaowei Ding, Binyan Zhang, Chensi Shen, Rundong Wang, Shanshan Yin, Fang Li, Chenye Xu","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123568","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.123568","url":null,"abstract":"The high loads of heterogeneous microplastics (MPs) in water system sparked the exploration of MPs source and impact in the environment. However, the contributions of driving factors to MPs contamination and the potential risks posed by multidimensional characteristics are still poorly understood. By incorporating <em>in situ</em> investigation with machine learning predictions, this study reported widespread MPs contamination in both the textile upstream and receiving watershed in Yangtze River Delta. The dominant MPs categories were fibers (0.1-0.5 mm in size), transparent in color, and composed of polyethylene terephthalate. These morphological characteristics indicated a conditional fragmentation process, suggesting that larger MPs are more prone to fragmentation. Multivariable analysis revealed significant correlations between MPs occurrence and factors of metal concentrations, geographic locations, and water qualities, highlighting the roles of textile production and automotive tire wear in determining MPs abundance. Among five machine learning models, Random Forest outperformed others in predicting MPs abundance. The interpretable analysis indicated that longitude (35.3%), TN (13.8%) and Sb (13.4%) were pivotal nodes in shaping the MPs abundance. Emission point sources from express, autotire and textile yield feature importance from 6.60% to 7.88%. A total 12.39% of the predicted variability can be further explained by interaction effects. Besides, MPERI and MultiMP indices based on abundance, size, color, shape, and polymer distributions suggested that most sampling sites fell within moderate to high-risk categories. Artificial neural network-based assessment results are suitable for explaining the MPs induced risks and polymer type was the most influential variable in determining the risk values. These quantitative insights into the driving factors and potential risks behind MPs occurrence improve our knowledge to manage MPs pollution in large-scale watersheds, providing crucial information for the development of effective mitigation strategies.","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"31 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":12.8,"publicationDate":"2025-03-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143734206","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Vertical green systems (VGSs) and on-site storage for stormwater management","authors":"Mojtaba Moravej, Cassady Swinbourne, Rebecca Hall, Steven Kenway","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123560","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.123560","url":null,"abstract":"The escalating challenges of urban densification, climate change, and aging drainage infrastructure necessitate innovative and sustainable stormwater management solutions. This study explores the potential of vertical green systems (VGSs) combined with on-site storage to reduce stormwater discharge from high-density urban environments. It aims to answer <em>how effective are these systems for stormwater management</em>? and <em>What are the wider implications for the urban water cycle</em>? An urban water mass balance model was developed and applied to quantify the daily performance of the proposed system, over a 51-year period (from 1 January 1972 to 29 June 2023) across four Australian cities —Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, and Perth— representing diverse climatic conditions. A total of 440 scenarios (10 wall areas x 11 storage sizes x 4 locations) were simulated, including with and without implementing the proposed system. Key findings indicated that VGSs and on-site storage systems can achieve 60–100% annual stormwater reduction, depending on the climate and the sizing of the system. The system was particularly effective in managing frequent, low-intensity rainfall events, achieving reductions above 80% for 1.5-year ARI events across all four locations. Despite these benefits, the system introduced a trade-off between stormwater reduction and increased potable water demand for irrigation during dry periods. Results suggest that this trade-off can be minimised with appropriate sizing of the system. For instance, a wall-to-roof ratio of 0.82 m²/m² and a storage size-to-roof ratio of 0.3 m³/m² increased water demand by only 3% of the total building demand during extreme droughts, such as those observed during the Millennium Drought in Perth. This additional water demand could also be met by re-using greywater, or similar strategies. Results presented in this paper demonstrate, for the first time, that evapotranspiration from vertical surfaces can serve as a primary hydraulic mechanism for stormwater management, effectively creating stormwater “sinks” close to the source. This finding has significant implications for restoring natural hydrology in urban environments and promoting sustainable urbanisation.","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"98 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":12.8,"publicationDate":"2025-03-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143723609","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effect of pre-chlorination on bioelectricity production and stabilization of excess sludge by microbial fuel cell","authors":"Dongye He, Yazhi Nong, Yanxi He, Yin Luo, Chuanfu Li, Jixian Gao, Chenyuan Dang, Jie Fu","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123564","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.123564","url":null,"abstract":"Microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a technology that can generate electricity while degrading excess sludge. However, the complex components, intricate biological structures, and inhibitory compounds in sludge limit the application of MFC. Therefore, this study utilized chlorination as a sludge pretreatment method to improve the comprehensive performance of MFC in sludge treatment. Results showed that pre-chlorination at a dose of 0.2 mg/L increased output voltage of MFC by 500% from approximately 100 mV to around 600 mV, and power density by 15.60% from 3.15 W/m³ to 3.64 W/m³, and simultaneously increased the degradation of sludge MLSS (mixed liquor suspended solids), MLVSS (mixed liquor volatile suspended solids), EPS (extracellular polymeric substances) polysaccharide and protein by 9.64%, 47.07%, 18.63% and 16.26%, respectively. Molecular composition analysis of EPS in sludge by three-dimensional excitation emission matrix fluorescence spectroscopy (3D-EEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS) indicated pre-chlorination significantly promoted the molecular transformation in MFC. The microbiome analysis of anode biofilm in MFC by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), metagenomics and metametabolomics revealed that pre-chlorination facilitated the development of biomass, enrichment of electricity-producing bacteria (EPB), enhancement of electricity-producing activity and metabolic activity. Moreover, the sludge EPS was the importance source for the microbial metabolites in MFC was validated by the joint analysis of FT-ICR-MS and metametabolomics.","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"57 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":12.8,"publicationDate":"2025-03-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143713259","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Long-term impacts of free chlorine and monochloramine on the development of drinking water biofilm","authors":"Lihua Chen ,&nbsp;Haoran Shi ,&nbsp;Gertjan Medema ,&nbsp;Walter van der Meer ,&nbsp;Gang Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123566","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123566","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Biofilm formation in drinking water distribution systems is primarily managed by disinfectants such as free chlorine (FC) and monochloramine (MC). However, there is limited understanding of their long-term and dynamic effects on biofilm development. To address this, a 56-week study was conducted to comprehensively assess biofilm development in terms of microbial quantity and community under different disinfection regimes: no chlorine (NC), FC (0.1 mg/L), and MC (0.4 mg/L). The results showed that both FC and MC significantly inhibited biofilm growth compared to the NC condition while shaping distinct biofilm communities. Notably, FC drastically reduced biofilm biomass and community diversity, resulting in a more uniform biofilm community predominantly composed of Proteobacteria (e.g., <em>Rhizobacter</em> spp., <em>Pseudomonas</em> spp., and <em>Hyphomicrobium</em> spp.), indicating stronger selection pressures on the microbial population. In contrast, though MC effectively reduced the biofilm biomass to a level comparable to that of FC, it maintained a high diversity comparable to that of NC (dominated by <em>Sphingobium</em> spp. and <em>Nocardioides</em> spp.), reflecting weaker selection pressure on bacterial community. Temporally, biofilm communities under all conditions started from nearly identical states. From week-19 and week-36 onwards, deterministic processes predominantly governed biofilm formation under FC and NC conditions, signifying that these biofilms reached a stable state. Differently, under MC condition, the community assembly was continually influenced by stochastic processes, with the biofilm not achieving stability until week-56. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the long-term dynamics of biofilm development and evidenced that FC is better than MC in controlling biofilm formation, particularly from the community diversity perspective. This challenges classical views that MC is more effective than FC in penetrating and controlling biofilm, which may change the popularity of MC as a disinfectant in water utilities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"281 ","pages":"Article 123566"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143724009","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Maximizing membrane antifouling potential: the impact of fluoride positioning in multifunctional designs","authors":"Caihong Liu, Rui Gao, Xiao Wang, Andreia F. Faria, Liu Yang, Bin Zhang, Qiang He","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123565","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.123565","url":null,"abstract":"Fluoropolymers with low surface energy demonstrate outstanding potential for fouling release. However, their limited effectiveness in practical antifouling applications requires integration with other strategies. This study explored the significant impact of fluoropolymers in a multifunctional approach that combines antiadhesion (S), antibacterial (M), and fouling release (H) properties to enhance the performance of thin-film-composite (TFC) membranes for controlling biofouling (The letters S, M and H originate from the initial letters of the corresponding functional monomers). We constructed membrane surface functionalities with fluoropolymers placed in different layers: p(H-M-S), which incorporates fluoropolymers in the innermost layer as a release-antibacterial-antiadhesion membrane; p(M-H-S), where fluoropolymers are in the middle layer as an antibacterial-release-antiadhesion membrane; and p(M-S-H), with fluoropolymers in the outermost layer as an antibacterial-antiadhesion-release membrane. This multifunctional approach resulted in superior membrane transport properties and varying resistance to biofouling. During repeated filtration cycles, the p(H-M-S) membrane showed the most effective biofouling mitigation and long-term durability, achieving an 82% flux recovery in the third cycle due to the synergistic effects of its three combined functions. The p(M-H-S) membrane displayed strong antiadhesion performance in the early stages but had limited durability over time. In contrast, the p(M-S-H) membrane revealed the weakest fouling resistance, likely because of the hydrophobic nature of the fluorinated components in the outermost layer. Bacterial adhesion assay and protein release tests further demonstrated that the p(M-H-S) membrane reduced bacterial adhesion by 66% and released 23% of the protein foulants. This effectiveness is attributed to the antifouling activity provided by the hydrophilic zwitterions and bactericidal quaternary ammonium compounds, as well as the fouling-release capability of fluoropolymers, which facilitates the detachment of foulants under hydraulic forces. Microscopic analysis, coupled with interfacial energy evaluations, confirmed the presence of various multi-defense mechanisms based on the different functional architectures of the membrane. These findings offer valuable insights for designing optimized multifunctional antifouling membranes with improved performance and stability.","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"35 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":12.8,"publicationDate":"2025-03-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143713261","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}