Health Psychology Report最新文献_第4页

The interdependence of happiness and filial piety within the family: a study in Vietnam 幸福与孝道在家庭中的相互依存:越南的一项研究

Health Psychology Report Pub Date : 2023-10-19 DOI: 10.5114/hpr/172091

Hai Van Mai, Hao Van Le

{"title":"The interdependence of happiness and filial piety within the family: a study in Vietnam","authors":"Hai Van Mai, Hao Van Le","doi":"10.5114/hpr/172091","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr/172091","url":null,"abstract":"Background Filial piety is one of the most important values in Vietnam, as it is in a number of East Asian countries. It is an expression of children’s respect, gratitude, and care for their parents. While filial piety may bring joy to parents and is a personal duty for offspring, it can also be a pressure for children. Hence, in recent years, some studies have considered filial piety as two di-mensions instead of one dimension. Participants and procedure This study focused on clarifying the relationship between filial piety and perceived family happiness with 385 adult off-spring who lived in Vietnam at the time of the study. The Dual Filial Piety Scale (DFPS) and the Interdependent Happiness Scale (IHS) were used. Results The results showed that participants regularly engaged in aspects of filial piety and there was no contradiction between authoritarian filial piety (AFP) and reciprocal filial piety (RFP). Filial piety can predict family happiness at a fairly high level. Conclusions These results, besides showing the importance and value to the family, also give a multi-dimensional and comprehensive view of filial piety. At the social level, upholding the value of filial piety is the basis for building family happiness as well as making an important contribution to the implementation of social security in the family.","PeriodicalId":44293,"journal":{"name":"Health Psychology Report","volume":"30 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135779546","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Psychotherapy and chronic pain management: a quantitative study evaluating the contribution of psychotherapy to quality of life and treatment compliance in chronic disease patients 心理治疗和慢性疼痛管理:一项定量研究，评估心理治疗对慢性疾病患者生活质量和治疗依从性的贡献

Health Psychology Report Pub Date : 2023-10-13 DOI: 10.5114/hpr/171847

Venetia Dourouka, Dimitris D. Vlastos, Paraskevi Theofilou

{"title":"Psychotherapy and chronic pain management: a quantitative study evaluating the contribution of psychotherapy to quality of life and treatment compliance in chronic disease patients","authors":"Venetia Dourouka, Dimitris D. Vlastos, Paraskevi Theofilou","doi":"10.5114/hpr/171847","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr/171847","url":null,"abstract":"Background The psychology of pain is an important field of study that focuses on understanding the psychological factors associated with pain and developing effective approaches to its management. Pain is a complex sensation that affects a person’s phys-ical and mental well-being, and psychological factors can have a significant impact on the perception, response and coping with pain. This research study examines the contribution of psychotherapy in managing chronic pain and improving quality of life and treatment adherence. Participants and procedure The sample consisted of 87 participants who completed the McGill Pain Assessment Questionnaire, SF-36 Quality of Life questionnaire, and the Morisky Medication Adherence Scale (MMAS-8) questionnaire. Two groups were created: one group received psychotherapy to manage pain and illness, while the other group either did not receive psychotherapy or had no contact with this therapeutic method. Results The results showed that patients who received psychotherapy had higher scores in the dimensions of mental health, vitali-ty, general health, physical pain, physical functioning, and social functioning compared to patients who did not receive psy-chotherapy. Statistical analysis confirmed significant differences between the two groups. Additionally, psychotherapy was associated with higher treatment adherence, as indicated by the mean scores of patients receiving psychotherapy compared to those who did not. Conclusions This suggests that psychotherapy can contribute to increased treatment adherence. The results clearly show that patients who received psychotherapy have significantly higher levels of mental health, vitality, general health and functioning com-pared to patients who did not receive psychotherapy.","PeriodicalId":44293,"journal":{"name":"Health Psychology Report","volume":"131 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135923808","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

The social infertility cycle model 社会不孕周期模型

Health Psychology Report Pub Date : 2023-10-04 DOI: 10.5114/hpr/170986

Alicja Malina

引用次数: 0

Validation of the Polish version of the Dyadic Trust Scale 波兰版二元信任量表的验证

Health Psychology Report Pub Date : 2023-10-04 DOI: 10.5114/hpr/171846

Natalia Woźniak, Mariusz Cieślak, Iwona Janicka

{"title":"Validation of the Polish version of the Dyadic Trust Scale","authors":"Natalia Woźniak, Mariusz Cieślak, Iwona Janicka","doi":"10.5114/hpr/171846","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr/171846","url":null,"abstract":"Background The aim of the research was to adapt the Dyadic Trust Scale – a tool for studying individuals engaged in close relationships, originally developed by Larzelere and Huston. Trust operationalized as the subjective experience of benevolence and honesty from one’s partner served as the central construct under investigation. Participants and procedure A total of 208 participants involved in emotionally intimate relationships were examined. The successive stages of the re-search procedure related to the verification of the tool for Polish conditions are presented. Evaluation of the psychometric properties encompassed the assessment of both its validity and reliability. The exploratory factor analysis, adopted for the single-factor approach, and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted using SPSS version 28 and SPSS Amos. Results The conducted statistical analyses provided evidence for a unidimensional structure consisting of five statements. The mini-mum score that can be obtained by the individual is 5 points, and the maximum is 35 points. The higher the overall score is, the greater is the trust in the dyad. It turned out that the Polish version of the Dyadic Trust Scale is accurate and reliable. Conclusions The Dyadic Trust Scale can be used in scientific research investigating trust dynamics within the partners in a dyad. Its use-fulness justifies recognizing trust as crucial for building and maintaining close relationships.","PeriodicalId":44293,"journal":{"name":"Health Psychology Report","volume":"35 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135646576","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

The hidden pandemic: a qualitative study on how middle-aged women make sense of managing their long COVID symptoms 隐藏的流行病:一项关于中年妇女如何管理长期COVID症状的定性研究

Health Psychology Report Pub Date : 2023-10-04 DOI: 10.5114/hpr/169811

Disa Collier, Gulcan Garip

{"title":"The hidden pandemic: a qualitative study on how middle-aged women make sense of managing their long COVID symptoms","authors":"Disa Collier, Gulcan Garip","doi":"10.5114/hpr/169811","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr/169811","url":null,"abstract":"Background A relapsing and remitting illness, long COVID can be challenging and debilitating. A person living with long COVID can feel like they are getting better and recovering only to relapse again. The aim of the research was to explore how non-hospitalized middle-aged women who contracted COVID in the first wave of the pandemic, from March 2020, are manag-ing their long COVID symptoms. Participants and procedure A qualitative research study with an interpretative phenomenological analysis approach was used to explore how the wom-en made sense of managing their condition and health seeking behaviours. Participants were recruited from long COVID Facebook groups and semi-structured interviews were conducted remotely by Teams audio; these were digitally recorded and transcribed by hand with prior informed consent. Nine women were interviewed and four themes and eight sub-themes emerged from the data. Results The four emerging themes were: inequality and inconsistent medical treatment; uncertainty and ambiguity of managing long COVID symptoms; managing other people’s expectations and perceptions of long COVID; and the changing identity. Overall, these results indicated a general mistrust in health care services to provide adequate support and individualized treatment plans leading women to self-advocacy and to seek alternative support and treatment. Conclusions This study raised questions about the possible unfair treatment of women seeking medical attention for their long COVID symptoms; how ambiguous symptoms are misattributed to anxiety and discrimination from health care professionals con-tributes towards stigma. The study concludes with recommendations for service improvement such as the compassionate validation of patients’ pain and the use of evidence-based therapeutic practices such as mindfulness.","PeriodicalId":44293,"journal":{"name":"Health Psychology Report","volume":"72 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135646577","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Trend in loneliness among Swiss university students during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic 2019冠状病毒病大流行第一年瑞士大学生孤独感趋势

Health Psychology Report Pub Date : 2023-10-03 DOI: 10.5114/hpr/169721

Thomas Volken, Simone Amendola, Annina Zysset, Marion Huber, Agnes von Wyl, Julia Dratva

{"title":"Trend in loneliness among Swiss university students during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic","authors":"Thomas Volken, Simone Amendola, Annina Zysset, Marion Huber, Agnes von Wyl, Julia Dratva","doi":"10.5114/hpr/169721","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr/169721","url":null,"abstract":"Background The need to maintain physical and social distance between people and the stay-at-home recommendation/order to contain the spread of COVID-19 have raised concerns about the possible increase in loneliness. However, few studies have analyzed trends or changes in loneliness in samples of young adults. The present study aimed to explore the prevalence of loneliness and its change during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants and procedure This is a repeated cross-sectional study analyzing data collected through six online surveys between April 2020 and March 2021 from 5,669 university students in Switzerland. Logistic regression models were used to examine trends in loneliness and associations between loneliness, well-being, life at home, COVID-19 symptoms and tests. Results Loneliness decreased between April 2020 and May-June 2020. In contrast, loneliness was higher in December 2020, January and March 2021 compared to April 2020. Loneliness was associated with younger age, studying architecture, design and civil engineering or engineering, enjoying time spent with family/partner, experiencing tensions and conflicts at home, boredom, feeling locked up and subjective well-being and current health. Conclusions Our findings highlight an increase in loneliness during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, although a seasonality effect cannot be excluded. Public health systems and educational institutions need to monitor the effects of social distancing measures and reduced social contact on students’ loneliness and well-being.","PeriodicalId":44293,"journal":{"name":"Health Psychology Report","volume":"28 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135789673","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Post-traumatic growth in oncological patients during the COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19大流行期间肿瘤患者的创伤后生长

Health Psychology Report Pub Date : 2023-09-18 DOI: 10.5114/hpr/169165

Letizia Lafuenti, Loredana Dinapoli, Ludovica Mastrilli, Vezio Savoia, Marinella Linardos, Riccardo Masetti, Giampaolo Tortora, Vincenzo Valentini, Giovanni Scambia, Daniela P. R. Chieffo

{"title":"Post-traumatic growth in oncological patients during the COVID-19 pandemic","authors":"Letizia Lafuenti, Loredana Dinapoli, Ludovica Mastrilli, Vezio Savoia, Marinella Linardos, Riccardo Masetti, Giampaolo Tortora, Vincenzo Valentini, Giovanni Scambia, Daniela P. R. Chieffo","doi":"10.5114/hpr/169165","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr/169165","url":null,"abstract":"Background Post-traumatic growth (PTG) is defined as “positive psychological change experienced as a result of the struggle with high-ly challenging life circumstances”. Diagnosis of cancer leads to many psychological challenges. The recent pandemic forced oncological patients to face other multiple stressors. Resilience is a target of interest for PTG. The aim of this study is to analyze relationships between cancer trauma, COVID-19 pandemic stress, PTG and resilience over time. Participants and procedure One hundred forty-six patients (124 females, 22 males) in active oncological treatment were enrolled from September 2020: 45.2% (n = 66) diagnosed with gynecological cancer, 23.3% (n = 34) with breast cancer, 15.1% (n = 22) with lung cancer, 16.5% (n = 24) with other cancers. We conducted a prospective longitudinal study on oncological patients evaluated at: diag-nosis (T0), 6 (T1) and 12 months (T2) by means of the following self-administered tests: Distress Thermometer (DT), Hospi-tal Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Impact of Event Scale Revised (IES-R), Post-traumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI), Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Results DT decreased over time (T0 vs. T2, p < .001). HADS decreased from T0 to T2 (p < .001). The PTG subscales regarding new possibilities and appreciating life improved comparing T0 vs. T2 (p = .029; p = .013), as well as the total index of PTG (p = .027). The IES avoidance subscale score decreased over time (T0 vs. T1, p = .035). Conclusions For some patients, the cancer experience is characterized not only by psychological distress but also by the presence and growth of positive aspects, such as the tendency to positively reconsider the value and importance of life, health and social relationships.","PeriodicalId":44293,"journal":{"name":"Health Psychology Report","volume":"36 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-09-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135208425","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

How does emotional intelligence act on institutional policies? A new set of behaviors to facilitate implementation of the Recovery and Resilience Plan (RRP) in local health units in Italy 情商是如何作用于制度政策的?促进在意大利地方卫生单位实施《恢复和复原力计划》的一套新行为

Health Psychology Report Pub Date : 2023-09-11 DOI: 10.5114/hpr/166564

Francesca Cioffi, Marina Cerbo, Federico Spandonaro, Giorgio Casati, Daniela Sgroi, Gerardo Corea, Rossella Moscogiuri, Lina Delle Monache

{"title":"How does emotional intelligence act on institutional policies? A new set of behaviors to facilitate implementation of the Recovery and Resilience Plan (RRP) in local health units in Italy","authors":"Francesca Cioffi, Marina Cerbo, Federico Spandonaro, Giorgio Casati, Daniela Sgroi, Gerardo Corea, Rossella Moscogiuri, Lina Delle Monache","doi":"10.5114/hpr/166564","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr/166564","url":null,"abstract":"The main contribution of this article is establishing a set of behaviors and successful actions experimenting the Ipacs’ (Insti-tutional & Public Coaching Services) methodology on implementation of the National Recovery Plan (NRP), approved in Italy in 2021 to overcome the socio-economic impact of the pandemic. This research is aimed at pointing out emotional intelligence (EI) behaviors related to the activities of the NRP with respect to the National Health System (NHS).Fifty-six professionals were provided with an integrated pathway with coaching, participative art and mentoring from Janu-ary to June 2022. A “core set” of 5 soft skills – communication, result orientation, teamwork, networking, and emotional intelligence – was measured before and after an integrated coaching pathway. Each soft skill related to the following three systemic objectives through pre-defined, related activities: 1) defining and introducing new roles in the health community houses; 2) implementing a new systemic communication in oncology; 3) facilitating the management of chronicity through a new IT platform. We observed that the Giunti test (Org-EIQ) and Ipacs’ test enlighten the same emotional intelligence indicators of behaviors considered by the investigated coaching integrated pathway.Forty-eight percent of them increased in all 5 core skills. Results were measured at least in one of the two tests. These re-sults were possible thanks to the changes in abilities of self- introspection, in communicating and sharing common goals, to achieve high standard results in conditions of uncertainty, to understand non-verbal feedback and give feedback.Emotional intelligence acted as a meta skill to pursue a “new model of man” with a new self-schema, self-image and set of behaviors.","PeriodicalId":44293,"journal":{"name":"Health Psychology Report","volume":"37 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-09-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136025301","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

The relationship between maladaptive health beliefs, pandemic-related stress, and health anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19大流行期间适应性不良健康信念、大流行相关压力和健康焦虑之间的关系

Health Psychology Report Pub Date : 2023-09-11 DOI: 10.5114/hpr/169169

Shelby M. Shivak, Danielle M. Caissie, Hilary A. Power, Aleiia J. N. Asmundson, Kristi D. Wright

{"title":"The relationship between maladaptive health beliefs, pandemic-related stress, and health anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic","authors":"Shelby M. Shivak, Danielle M. Caissie, Hilary A. Power, Aleiia J. N. Asmundson, Kristi D. Wright","doi":"10.5114/hpr/169169","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr/169169","url":null,"abstract":"Background Research has demonstrated that people experience specific distress and anxiety regarding COVID-19. This distress may consist of interconnected symptom categories corresponding to a COVID stress syndrome. Susceptibility to COVID stress syndrome may be related to one’s maladaptive health beliefs; however, no research has investigated the association be-tween maladaptive health beliefs and COVID stress. The present study explored the impact of health beliefs on COVID stress, health anxiety, and associated psychological constructs. Participants and procedure This cross-sectional survey study included 221 adults (M age = 20.59, SD = 2.28). Participants completed an online survey including demographic questionnaires and self-report measures of health beliefs, COVID stress, health anxiety, and related psychological constructs. Results Health anxiety, anxiety sensitivity, state/trait anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty, and depression accounted for significant variance in COVID stress (F(6, 214) = 11.18, R2 = .24, p < .001). Health beliefs (i.e., perceived likelihood of illness, medical service inadequacy, and difficulty coping) were associated with greater COVID stress, although health beliefs were not found to mediate the relationship between health anxiety and COVID stress. Conclusions Health beliefs were associated with greater COVID stress, although health beliefs did not mediate the relationship between health anxiety and COVID stress. The relationship between health anxiety and COVID stress may be better explained by other COVID-related cognitions (e.g., vaccine efficacy, dangerousness of COVID-19). The findings highlight the im-portance of peoples’ health beliefs during the pandemic. Given anxiety’s influence on peoples’ behavioural responses to the pandemic, further research should identify COVID-specific cognitions for prevention of COVID stress and health anxiety.","PeriodicalId":44293,"journal":{"name":"Health Psychology Report","volume":"60 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-09-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136025300","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Living with COVID-19: emotions and health during the pandemic. 与 COVID-19 共存：大流行期间的情绪与健康。

IF 2

Health Psychology Report Pub Date : 2022-05-04 eCollection Date: 2022-01-01 DOI: 10.5114/hpr.2022.115795

Nadia Rania, Laura Pinna, Ilaria Coppola

{"title":"Living with COVID-19: emotions and health during the pandemic.","authors":"Nadia Rania, Laura Pinna, Ilaria Coppola","doi":"10.5114/hpr.2022.115795","DOIUrl":"10.5114/hpr.2022.115795","url":null,"abstract":"Background: COVID-19 has led and still leads all nations to adopt virus containment plans, considering possible strategies that help to live with the virus. The present study aimed to investigate the practical, psychological and emotional aspects of living with COVID-19.Participants and procedure: A total of 250 young adults (86% female), who lived in north-western Italy, took part in an online photovoice study, in respect of social distancing. They participated in a group discussion following the method SHOWeD. The researchers analyzed the photographs along with comments and transcripts from the SHOWeD group discussions using the triangulation process of visual and textual data. The collected data were analyzed on the basis of grounded theory, with the support of the NVivo 12 software.Results: From the analysis of the emotions concerning the psychological health of participants, 4 categories were identified. The results reveal benefits and emotional aspects that have stimulated the increase of individual and community empowerment. COVID-19 has led and still leads all nations to adopt virus containment plans, considering possible strategies that help to live with the virus.Conclusions: From the analysis of the results it emerged how the online photovoice was a tool that allowed on the one hand the sharing of experiences and emotions related to living with COVID-19 and on the other hand to maintain social ties despite physical distance.","PeriodicalId":44293,"journal":{"name":"Health Psychology Report","volume":"1 1","pages":"212-226"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2022-05-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10679920/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87021998","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 3