{"title":"Ṣūfism and the Gurdjieff ‘Work’: A Contested Relationship","authors":"C. Cusack","doi":"10.1163/9789004435544_032","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004435544_032","url":null,"abstract":"The origins of ‘the Work’, the system taught by the Greek-Armenian esoteric spiritual teacher, George Ivanovich Gurdjieff (c. 1866–1949) remain obscure, and its sources have been sought in a range of religious traditions, most commonly Buddhism, Christianity, and Ṣūfism.1 This chapter interrogates the claim that Gurdjieff ’s teaching is broadly derived from Islamic sources, in particular central Asian Ṣūfism. Gurdjieff spoke of his system as “esoteric Christianity,” and his cosmology owes a debt to neo-Platonism, in particular the works of Iamblichus (Azize 2010). However, his pupil John Godolphin Bennett (1897– 1974) believed that Ṣūfism was the ultimate source of Gurdjieff ’s teaching. In this chapter Ṣūfi influence is identified in four areas of the Work. First, Gurdjieff ’s travels in search of wisdom, chronicled in a fictionalised form in Meetings with Remarkable Men (1963), seemingly led him to Ṣūfi monasteries in Central Asia, where he learned the meditative techniques of “self-remembering” and the “Movements” (Hunt 2003). Gurdjieff ’s magnum opus, Beelzebub’s Tales To His Grandson (1950) also features Ṣūfi characters and teaching stories. Second, the sacred dances or Movements that Gurdjieff taught have been presumed to originate in dervish dances (Barber 1986). Third, his pupil John Godolphin Bennett (1897–1974) identified Gurdjieff ’s distinctive persona and teaching method, involving insults and “shocks,” as deriving from the Ṣūfi malamatiyyah or “way of blame” (Bennett 1973). Bennett’s involvement with soi-disant Ṣūfi master Idries Shah (1924–1996) and with Indonesian new religion Subud (founded by Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo, 1901–1987), itself influenced by (Javanese) Ṣūfism, is discussed (Geels 1997), as is the Bennett lineage’s links with contemporary Ṣūfism. Fourth and finally,","PeriodicalId":410071,"journal":{"name":"Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements","volume":"114 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126131047","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Nahdlatul Ulama (NU): A Grassroots Movement Advocating Moderate Islam","authors":"Faried F. Saenong","doi":"10.1163/9789004435544_009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004435544_009","url":null,"abstract":"Pengurus Besar Nahdlatul Ulama (PBNU, the Central Board of Nahdlatul Ulama) claims to have 60 million members in Indonesia (Arifianto 2017: 257), and approximately 30 million more throughout the world. This makes NU the largest independent Islamic organisation across the globe. Its large number of members require extra attention from PBNU to adequately cater to their needs. In order to support services for the community, a broad range of institutions and infrastructures are necessary. To this end, NU boards have extended their exposure through Pengurus Besar (the central board) in Jakarta, Pengurus Wilayah (regional boards in provinces), Pengurus Cabang (branch boards in towns or districts), Majelis Wakil Cabang (councils of branch representatives in kecamatan or sub-districts), and Pengurus Ranting (twig boards in kelurahan or villages) across Indonesia. For overseas members, NU has launched Pengurus Cabang Istimewa (special branch boards) in many countries. In addition, NU has semi-autonomous organisations for women, university students, school or madrasa students, scholars, business people, and others, that extend from the central board to the twig boards. The services to the members and communities also require significant attention as they include formation, supervision, leadership on all levels, direction, visits, and other organisational necessities. The services also include organisational workshops and training in order to provide information regarding NU’s history, theology, activities, products, networks, political policies and strategies, and future projections. Equally important, NU also provides amenities such as hospital and health services, educational institutions from schools to universities, agricultural groups, and many more. NU provides services for nonmembers too, since leaders Ahmad Siddiq and Abdurrahman Wahid formally accepted “the official state ideology of Pancasila as its ‘sole basis’ ” (Fealy and Bush 2014: 546) at the movement’s National Congress in 1984. For a traditional socio-religious organisation like NU, it is a substantial commitment to provide such services across Indonesia and overseas. Moreover, all caretakers from the","PeriodicalId":410071,"journal":{"name":"Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133789442","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Women and Islamic Movements","authors":"Eva F. Nisa","doi":"10.1163/9789004435544_010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004435544_010","url":null,"abstract":"Muslim women have long been the backbone of the development of Islam, including Islamic thoughts, practices, and movements. This chapter focuses on the complex trajectory of women’s movement and women’s activism in various Islamic movements, including their struggle for women’s rights. Despite their extensive contributions, Muslim women’s roles in the development of Islamic thoughts, practices, and movements are often overlooked. Establishing female religious authority, for example, has been an issue in many Muslim countries since the advent of Islam and throughout its development. Meanwhile those who have spoken on behalf of Islam, from its earliest days, were not only men but also women (see Krämer and Schmidtke 2006; Künkler and Nisa 2018). Both men and women have shared their thoughts and expertise to their Muslim fellows, becoming the sources of guidance for Muslims throughout Islamic history. In addition, Muslim women have been active in forming their own Muslim organisations and have become important agents in diverse Islamic movements ranging from ultra conservative to moderate and progressive movements. However, studies on religious authorities often mention Muslim women and their movements only as an appendix of men’s religious authorities, though theoretically women and men hold the same responsibility to understand and transmit religious knowledge.1 This chapter analyses Muslim women and their religious activism, both as individuals or part of diverse Islamic and Islamist movements. It cannot not be all-inclusive because of the complexity and immensely diverse affiliations and movements that Muslim women have been a part of to date. It also touches on but does not intend to problematise historical debates of women’s presence and their roles in the early community. Rather, this chapter will briefly","PeriodicalId":410071,"journal":{"name":"Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements","volume":"47 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121416008","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Subud: An Indonesian Interpretation of Ṣūfism","authors":"A. Geels","doi":"10.1163/9789004435544_030","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004435544_030","url":null,"abstract":"Subud is one of hundreds of mystical movements (aliran kebatinan) that have grown significantly in post-war Indonesia. Along with other movements like Sumarah and Pangestu, Subud has attracted people from the West and has now spread to 83 countries, divided into nine zones. The total number of members is estimated at close to twelve thousand. Despite the fact that Subud leaders deny any relation to the Javanese mystical tradition, it can easily be shown that the greater part of Subud’s conceptual apparatus is firmly rooted in the cultural history of Java. Under the banner of change and renewal, Subud presents a message that, fundamentally, is one of continuity in a society in transition. Subud’s ideas and practices underline not only the variety within Islamic sects and movements, but also the adaptability to local traditions, as the present chapter will try to show. Subud is an acronym for Susila Budhi Dharma, words of Sanskrit origin. According to Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo, the founder of Subud, the meaning of these three words is “to follow the will of God with the help of the Divine Power that works both within and without, by way of surrendering oneself to the will of Almighty God.” As such Subud “may be attached to the whole of mankind in every religion.” This means that Subud also can be presented as an example of ‘glocal’ spirituality. Subud attaches to local spiritual traditions, including Hinduism, while simultaneously having the ambition to reach out globally. The focus in this chapter will be on a short biographical presentation of the founder, the basic concepts of Subud, its specific spiritual exercise (latihan kejiwaan), and, finally, the Javanese background of Subud, especially focused on the nineteenth century renaissance period and the rise of mystical movements in post-war Java.","PeriodicalId":410071,"journal":{"name":"Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements","volume":"105 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124845838","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Gülen Movement: Between Turkey and International Exile","authors":"C. Tee","doi":"10.1163/9789004435544_007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004435544_007","url":null,"abstract":"Since a failed attempt at a military coup on the night of 15 July 2016, the Gülen Movement (henceforth GM), which developed around the figure of Islamic preacher and social critic Fethullah Gülen (b. 1941), has been forcibly exiled from its homeland of Turkey.1 The events of that night marked the final, explosive stage in Fethullah Gülen’s transition from powerful establishment ally to Turkey’s most wanted criminal (Esen and Gumuscu 2017; Yavuz and Balcı 2018; Zarakol 2016). The Turkish government holds Gülen directly responsible for masterminding the coup and the GM is referred to in Turkey today as FETÖ (Fethullahist Terrorist Organisation), and the unprecedented wave of arrests and state sector purges that have been witnessed since 2016 have ostensibly been aimed at its members. In reality, tens of thousands of people—many of whom have no connection to Gülen whatsoever—have lost their jobs, fled the country or are now languishing in prison. Those Gülenists who were able to escape have sought refuge overseas, many of them apparently in Western Europe and the United States of America (US), where the GM has an established presence. With its considerable financial assets in Turkey confiscated by the state, febrile anti-Gülenism pervading the public mood and President Erdoğan’s grip on power consolidated through an executive presidency, there is little prospect of the GM ever recovering its once powerful position in its homeland. Since 2016, the organisational contours of the GM have changed. Gülen continues to reside on his reclusive compound in Pennsylvania, US, where he has lived since 1999, and the efforts of the Turkish government to secure his extradition to face charges for masterminding the coup have so far failed. However, while Gülen and his inner circle of followers remain intact, the rest of the global GM has experienced serious rupture. Searching for a future outside Turkey, the","PeriodicalId":410071,"journal":{"name":"Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements","volume":"26 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134501043","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Javād Nūrbakhsh and the Niʿmatullāhī ‘Khaniqahi’ Order","authors":"M. Milani","doi":"10.1163/9789004435544_029","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004435544_029","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter addresses the designation of Ṣūfi Master Javād Nūrbakhsh (1926– 2008) and the Niʿmatullāhī ‘Khaniqahi’ Order or Khāniqāh-i-Niʿmat Allāhī as sectarian. Within the field of Islamic Studies, or even the broader scope of the study of Islam, there is no sufficient term that equates with ‘sect’ or ‘sectarian’. Generally, Islamic history—from early on—is replete with examples of divisions between political alliances/parties (for example, shīʿat ʿAlī or shīʿat Muʿāwiya) pertaining to leadership (imāma) and schools of thought (madhhab) and to methods of reading and practicing the religion. Yet it has to be cautioned that none of these are tantamount to the ‘church-sect typology’ as set out in the sociology of religion for the Western Christian context. Max Weber (1922) and Ernst Troeltsch (1912) used the typology as a heuristic tool. In their theorising, the church was equated with the larger bureaucratic statesponsored organisation that ministered to the general population, whilst the sect was the smaller evangelical group that adopted a radical stance towards the state. Bryan R. Wilson (1959, 1992) later modified the typology to define sects by the way in which they positioned themselves in opposition to social values or demonstrated their indifference to societal norms. In this sense, it has been more about a study that assists in the categorisation of dissention and along with it claims about the return to true religion. As such, and despite my own reservations about the application of ‘sectarian’ to groupings within Islam, one point of entry into the debate might very well be the combined issue of the interpretation of religion and legitimation of rule that both dominated early debates and forced Muslims to pick sides. Obviously, Muslims gradually became aware of partisanship, dissention, apostasy (ridda), and secession (khawārij), although more sharply once a sense of orthodoxy had begun to take shape. Historically, the Ṣūfis are no strangers to intrigue and controversy regarding their allegiance to orthodoxy. Although Ṣūfism was never collectively viewed as heterodox or heretical, certain aspects of its belief system and praxis were","PeriodicalId":410071,"journal":{"name":"Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements","volume":"2 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131109331","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Ismāʿīlīs and Their Traditions","authors":"F. Daftary","doi":"10.1163/9789004435544_014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004435544_014","url":null,"abstract":"A major Shīʿī Muslim community, the Ismāʿīlīs have had a complex history dating back to the formative period of Islam. In the course of their history, the Ismāʿīlīs became subdivided into a number of major branches and minor groups. However, since the end of the fifth/eleventh century, they have existed in terms of two main branches, the Nizārīs and the Mustaʿlians, respectively designated as Khojas and Bohras in South Asia. Currently, the Ismāʿīlīs are scattered as religious minorities in more than thirty countries in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe, and North America. Numbering several millions, they also represent a diversity of ethnic groups and literary traditions and speak a variety of languages. Both Ismāʿīlī historiography and the perceptions of outsiders of the Ismāʿīlīs in pre-modern times, in both Muslim and Christian milieus, have had a fascinating trajectory. In the course of their long history, the Ismāʿīlīs were persistently misrepresented with a variety of myths and legends circulating about their teachings and practices. This state of affairs reflected mainly the fact that until the twentieth century the Ismāʿīlīs were almost exclusively studied and evaluated on the basis of evidence collected, or often fabricated, by their detractors. As the most politically active wing of Shīʿī Islam, with a religiopolitical agenda that aimed to uproot the ʿAbbāsids and restore the caliphate to a line of ʿAlid imāms, from early on the Ismāʿīlīs aroused the hostility of the Sunnī establishment that led the Muslim majority. With the foundation of the Fāṭimid caliphate in 297/909, ruled by the Ismāʿīlī imām-caliph, the potential challenge of the Ismāʿīlīs to the established Sunnī order was actualised, and thereupon the ʿAbbāsids and the Sunnī ʿ ulamāʾ or religious scholars launched what amounted to an official anti-Ismāʿīlī propaganda campaign. The overall aim of this prolonged literary campaign was to discredit the Ismāʿīlī movement from its origins, so that the Ismāʿīlīs could be readily condemned as mulḥids, heretics or deviators from the true religious path. In particular, Sunnī polemicists fabricated the necessary evidence that would lend support to the refutation of the Ismāʿīlīs on specific doctrinal grounds. Muslim heresiographers, theologians, jurists, and historians also","PeriodicalId":410071,"journal":{"name":"Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements","volume":"27 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131110922","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Sectarianism in Sunnī Islam","authors":"Ron Geaves","doi":"10.1163/9789004435544_004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004435544_004","url":null,"abstract":"Any attempt to understand sectarianism within the Sunnī tradition of Islam will require acknowledging the perceptions of those among the majority of Muslims that have formed Islamic political and religious reality over the centuries into the present time, recognising the tensions between the real and the ideal, and the overriding conflict between the actual (schismatic division) and the perception (an undivided umma). Some may feel that the term ‘sectarian’ does not accurately reflect the reality of Sunnī Islamic divisions.1 Yet an alternative term, such as the Arabic madhhab, poses similar problems as it is generally used to describe the four orthodox schools of law or jurisprudence ( fīqh) in Sunnī Islam. The four Sunnī schools are Ḥanafī, Ḥanbalī, Shāfiʿī, and Mālikī. They are joined by two Shīʿa schools, Jaʿfarī and Zaydī. These schools are predominantly regional and rule over questions of religious law and as such they cannot be described as ‘sects’. The same reasoning applies to the early historical theological schools (kalām). They were more a scholarly exercise in theological questions, undertaken to correct or reassure those that doubted. Majid Fakhry defines kalām as an attempt to grapple with complex issues arising out of the Qurʾān’s understanding of God and creation; for example, free will, predestination, the eternal as opposed to the temporal reality of the Qurʾān as Word of God (Fakhry 1983: xvii–xviii). It is true that although Ilm al-Kalām is not so much a sectarian activity, various divisions within both Sunnī and Shīʿa Islam may favour one interpretation over another.2 Most difficult perhaps is the notion that ‘sectarianness’ problematises the ideal of an undivided umma which remains a key element in the Islamic imagined community (Anderson 1991). A vision of non-sectarianism has often been used as a","PeriodicalId":410071,"journal":{"name":"Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements","volume":"59 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"120988962","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Zaydism","authors":"","doi":"10.1163/9789004435544_013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004435544_013","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":410071,"journal":{"name":"Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements","volume":"105 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121114577","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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