Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica最新文献

{"title":"[The quality of life of Hungarian adolescents in the light of their emotions].","authors":"Nóra Rábavölgyi, Zsolt Mayer, Mónika Miklósi, Brigitta Szabó","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Objectives: </strong>Mental health professionals pay particular attention to adolescents, as many psychiatric disorders begin at this age, and the mental state of adolescents has been deteriorating worldwide in the last decade. Based on previous international research, the ability to regulate negative emotions and mentalization - that is, the ability to identify the thoughts and emotions behind one's own and others' behaviour - mediate the negative effects of attachment difficulties experienced in close relationships on the quality of life. This relationship has not yet been investigated among Hungarian adolescents. Adolescent events can have a long-term effect on a person's mental health, so it is very important to examine the factors that influence the quality of life. This research aimed to examine the relationship between attachment, mentalization, emotion regulation and quality of life among adolescents between 14 and 18 years of age.</p><p><strong>Method: </strong>In our research, 141 adolescents filled out the Experiences in Close Relationships questionnaire, the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire and the Quality of Life Scale after informed consent. We tested two mediator models, in which emotion regulation and mentalization were the mediating variables in the relationship between attachment difficulties and quality of life.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>In our analyses, attachment difficulties and emotion regulation problems also predicted a reduced quality of life. Attachment problems also reduce the quality of life of young people through emotional regulation difficulties. Our results suggest that adolescents' emotion regulation has a prominent role in their quality of life in addition to attachment styles.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>To improve the quality of life among adolescents, we recommend using techniques that develop emotion regulation.</p>","PeriodicalId":39762,"journal":{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica","volume":"27 1","pages":"29-36"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143774460","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"[Adaptation and Validation of the Hungarian Version of the Fight-Flight-Freeze Questionnaire (FFFQ-HU)].","authors":"Brigitta Ungvari, Márk Bendeguz Stranigg, Katalin Csigo","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>Fear is the primary emotional response to threats, driving individuals to cope with threats by triggering a stress response. This response can manifest in three distinct ways: defensive attack (fight), escape (flight), or immobility (freeze). Understanding these reaction types is crucial in personality psychology, neuroscience, and psychopathology. In this context, the adaptation of a Hungarian-language questionnaire to assess these responses is both timely and necessary.</p><p><strong>Methodology: </strong>The aim of the present study is to adapt and validate the Fight-Flight-Freeze Questionnaire (FFFQ-HU) in Hungarian. The questionnaire development consisted of three phases: (1) a qualitative preliminary study to select terms describing the constructs, (2) a quantitative (N = 420) study to explore the preliminary factor structure and select the final items, and (3) a quantitative (N = 851) study to explore and confirm the final factor structure and validate it. The ZKA-PQ-R, ANPS, BIS-BAS, and TCI55 questionnaires were used as validation scales.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Exploring the preliminary factor structure revealed clearly identifiable factors related to both the fight and freeze dimensions. In addition, we obtained one factor describing the emotional component of the fear response and one factor describing the avoidance behaviour, of which we retained the one containing the behavioural component for construct validity. The three-factor structure of the final questionnaire was confirmed, with acceptable or excellent fit indices for the exploratory analysis (RMSEA= 0.05; SRMR= 0.02; CFI= 0.97; TLI= 0.96), and also for the confirmatory one (RMSEA= 0.08; SRMR= 0.06; CFI= 0.97; TLI= 0.96, GFI= 0.99). The fight dimension did not correlate with the other factors, while flight and freeze showed a high positive correlation with each other, which differs from the results of the original questionnaire but can be explained by other research findings. The internal reliability indices of the factors were good (ω= 0.86-0.94; α= 0.86-0.94), and the correlation with the validation scales also supported the validity of the questionnaire.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>The results suggest that the Hungarian version of the Fight-Flight-Freeze Questionnaire (FFFQ-HU) is an appropriate measure for assessing types of stress reactions, thus enabling a wider range of research on fear reactions in Hungarian in the future.</p>","PeriodicalId":39762,"journal":{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica","volume":"27 1","pages":"14-28"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143774452","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"[Pharmacology of novel, fast-acting, non-monoaminergic antidepressants].","authors":"Borbala Laura Bohus, Szabolcs Koncz, Xenia Gonda","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>For decades, the molecular target of drug therapy in the treatment of major depression has been the monoamine system, primarily the serotonin transporter (SERT) and the norepinephrine transporter (NAT). Newer antidepressants have a better side effect profile than first-generation drugs due to their selectivity, but the monoaminergic target and the associated difficulties and challenges remain, primarily the problem that some of their neurochemical effects appear immediately, but it takes weeks for the antidepressant effect to develop. As a result of intensive research over the past decade, four approved antidepressants are now available whose molecular target is not a member of the monoamine system; they are not serotonergic or noradrenergic, but have a glutamatergic or GABAergic mechanism of action. Their advantages include the short time required for the onset of the effect; they exert their antidepressant effect within hours or days instead of weeks; their side effect profile is better, and they also offer a new treatment option for therapy-resistant patients. Two glutamatergic drugs, esketamine and dextromethorphan-bupropion (AXS-05), have already been approved for the treatment of treatment-resistant depression. The GABAergic drugs brexanolone and zuranolone are approved for the treatment of postpartum depression. These novel treatment options pave the way for novel avenues for further research and new targets in the treatment of depression.</p>","PeriodicalId":39762,"journal":{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica","volume":"27 1","pages":"37-50"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143774454","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Nature and severity of the effect of herbal medicinal products based on Melissa officinalis L. on animal behaviour when administrating different drug dosages.","authors":"Zinaida G Khabaeva, Azamat Ch Chiviev, Valentina S Gappoeva, Tamara V Lagkueva, Izeta V Bugulova","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The purpose of this research is to study the impact of herbal medicinal products based on Melissa officinalis on the anxiolytic effect in animals at different dosages of the drug. The study was conducted on albino Wistar rats using a sequence of three behavioural test systems (black and white chamber, elevated cruciform maze and open field). The combined medicinal product included the following starting materials of herbal origin: Melissa officinalis, Origanum vulgare, Salvia officinalis, Crataegus berries and Glycyrrhiza glabra root, in the ratio 17:10:10:10:10. Two dosages of the drug were tested: 5 ml and 2.5 ml per 1 kg of animal weight. The active components of the starting materials of herbal origin were isolated through continuous extraction in the Soxhlet apparatus with ethyl alcohol; after that, the solvent was distilled in a rotary evaporator. The herbal preparation produced notable effects by alleviating stress caused by the experimental setup (reducing phobic reactions) and simultaneously enhancing locomotion as well as exploratory and searching activities. These effects were observed to varying degrees across all three behavioural models. A comparative analysis of the testing results at different dosages of the experimental herbal preparation demonstrated the comparability of quantitative changes in the recorded behavioural reactions. This data makes it possible to use a lower drug dosage (2.5 ml/kg) in subsequent studies. The developed complex herbal medicinal product can be used as a basis for creating phytopreparations with targeted anxiolytic effect. The experimental data obtained will subsequently help in choosing the optimal dosage for rational pharmacotherapy and prevention of psycho-emotional disorders in humans and animals. \u0000\u0000(Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2025; 27(1): 6-13)</p>","PeriodicalId":39762,"journal":{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica","volume":"27 1","pages":"6-13"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143774502","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Late-life depression, clinical picture, etiology, therapeutic options.","authors":"Zsuzsanna Belteczki, Ibolya Von Der Wuk, Ilona Szili, Zoltan Rihmer","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In our review we discuss various forms of aging and briefly touch upon its psychological aspects. We also explore the prevalence of and the clinical manifestations associated with late-life depression. We present the etiological factors of late-life depression, including psychological and psychosocial factors, as well as biological causes such as genetic and epigenetic factors, immune, inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes, changes in neurotransmitter and neurotrophic systems, alterations in the HPA axis, and the impact of physical illnesses, medications, and hormonal changes. The process of differential diagnosis is summarised, along with an exploration of the complex concept of quality of life. We provide an overview of the characteristics of suicide in older populations and offer insight into the key pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions. \u0000\u0000(Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2025; 27(1): 51-64)</p>","PeriodicalId":39762,"journal":{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica","volume":"27 1","pages":"51-64"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143774462","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigating the Role of TNF-Alpha through Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity in Stress-Induced Depression.","authors":"Tamas Nagy, Daniel Baksa, Peter Petschner, Xenia Gonda, Zsofia Gal, Gabriella Juhasz, Gyorgy Bagdy","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a complex psychiatric condition significantly impacted by environmental stress and inflammation. Previous research suggests that stress-induced alterations in the blood-brain barrier (BBB) may allow pro-inflammatory cytokines like interleukin-6 (IL-6) to enter the brain, contributing to depression. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is another prominent cytokine implicated in depression, but its role in the context of BBB integrity and stress-mediated depression remains unclear.</p><p><strong>Objectives: </strong>This study aimed to investigate whether TNF-α plays a similar role as IL-6 in the development of depression through interactions with environmental stress and BBB integrity. Specifically, we examined the interaction between environmental stress, genetic variants of CLDN5 (the gene of the Claudin-5, a protein critical for BBB integrity), and TNF (the gene encoding the TNF-α protein) genetic variants on depressive symptoms.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We utilized data from the UK Biobank, comprising genetic, health, and lifestyle information from approximately 500,000 participants aged 40 to 69. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and a composite Current Depressive Symptoms (CDS) score based on self-reported questionnaire items. Environmental stress was quantified through participants' reports of significant life events in the past two years. Genetic analysis focused on 15 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the TNF gene (after linkage disequilibrium pruning) and a functional polymorphism in CLDN5 (rs885985). Linear regression models were used to assess main effects, gene-gene interactions, gene-environment interactions, and three-way interactions on depressive symptoms, adjusting for covariates and applying Bonferroni correction for multiple testing.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>No significant associations were found between TNF genetic variants and depressive symptoms after correcting for multiple testing. While some TNF SNPs showed nominal significance in interaction models - most notably rs3093546, which showed nominal significance in both depressive phenotypes - the findings were not robust enough to confirm a significant role. Unlike previous findings with IL6, TNF did not exhibit significant interactions with environmental stress and CLDN5 variants affecting depression risk.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The study does not support a significant role for TNF genetic variants interacting with environmental stress and BBB integrity in influencing depression risk. These findings suggest that IL-6 and BBB integrity may be more critical targets for understanding and treating stress-related depression, highlighting the complexity of depression's pathophysiology.</p><p><p>(Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2024; 26(4): 197-203)</p>","PeriodicalId":39762,"journal":{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica","volume":"26 4","pages":"197-203"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142931569","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Relative Efficacy of Internet-based and Face-to-face Behavioural Parent Training for Parents of Children with Attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: a Non-randomised Controlled Trial.","authors":"Monika Miklosi, Hanna Hayes, Maria Gallai","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background/objective: </strong>Behavioural Parent Training (BPT) is an evidence-based psychosocial intervention for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children. The use of online technologies significantly increases the accessibility of these interventions. This study aimed to assess the relative efficacy of face-to-face and online training in the use of parenting strategies taught. We also explored the impact of parental ADHD symptom levels.</p><p><strong>Method: </strong>A massive open online course (MOOC) version of a BPT program was designed and evaluated. A total of ninety parents of children diagnosed with ADHD were recruited. Randomisation was not employed; parents gave their preferences in choosing between face-to-face and online training formats. One month after the completion of the training and at a three-month follow-up, parents were queried regarding the implementation and frequency of use of the parenting strategies taught. The two groups were compared along these variables. The Adult ADHD Rating Scale (ASRS-A) was employed to screen parental ADHD symptoms, with the two groups (positively/negatively screened) subsequently compared in terms of their choice of training format and the use of the parenting strategies. The psychopathological symptoms of the child were evaluated using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ).</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Thirty parents elected to participate in the face- to-face training, while sixty parents registered for the online programme. The drop-out rate was high, data from 21 and 39 parents was included in the analysis from the two groups, respectively. The two groups did not differ in the ASRS-A screening outcome. The only difference was the implementation of the reward system, which was reported by more parents in the face-to-face group than in the online group. The only difference between the groups that screened positive and negative in the ASRS-A was found in the use of proactive parenting strategies. We found no significant differences between the two time points in the use of most parenting strategies.</p><p><strong>Discussion: </strong>Our results suggest that the online format may be similarly effective in teaching parenting techniques as the face-to-face parenting training. The level of parental ADHD symptoms had little effect; the difficulties regarding proactive strategies may be due to deficits in executive functioning. Parent training delivered through telemedicine can significantly improve access and is cost-effective; therefore, we recommend its use in the treatment of ADHD in children. Nevertheless, this necessitates appropriate regulation and funding of telemedicine. (Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2024; 26(4): 204-217)</p>","PeriodicalId":39762,"journal":{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica","volume":"26 4","pages":"204-217"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142932505","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Transdiagnostic conceptualization of schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder. An integrative framework of minimal self disturbance.","authors":"Agota Vass, Gabor Csukly, Kinga Farkas","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Aims: </strong>Autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia are traditionally viewed as distinct diagnostic categories. However, evidence increasingly suggests overlapping pathological functioning at various levels, starting from brain circuitry to behaviour. Notably, both disorders are characterized by anomalous minimal self-experience (altered body ownership and agency), which is a trait-like, phenomenological distortion. We propose a conceptual framework that unites multiple levels, from neural mechanisms to cognitive and phenomenological correlates, for understanding minimal self-disturbance across diagnostic boundaries.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>A comprehensive review of existing literature was conducted, examining phenomenological, neurocognitive, and neural correlates of minimal self-disturbance in both schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder. Assessment tools and scales such as the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience Scale, as well as experimental neurocognitive paradigms like the Rubber-Hand Illusion and self-relevant stimuli tasks, were examined for their relevance in evaluating self-experience in both conditions.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Minimal self-disturbances were found to be a prominent feature of both schizophrenia and autism, albeit with different manifestations. Patients with schizophrenia showed heightened susceptibility to body ownership alterations, while individuals with autism exhibited decreased susceptibility. Neural markers, particularly within the default mode network and thalamocortical connectivity, were implicated in self-disturbance in both disorders, suggesting a shared neurobiological basis.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>The minimal self- disturbance appears to be a transdiagnostic feature of both schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder, indicating that these conditions may represent points along a shared psychopathological continuum. The proposed model integrates neurobiological, cognitive, and phenomenological aspects of self-disturbance, offering a comprehensive framework for understanding and assessing disruptions in self-experience across these conditions. This approach promotes a shift away from rigid diagnostic classifications towards approaches that highlight the importance of atypical self-experience. (Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2024; 26(4): 218-226)</p>","PeriodicalId":39762,"journal":{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica","volume":"26 4","pages":"218-226"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142932728","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Maintenance treatment of catatonia with benzodiazepines: A case series and literature review.","authors":"Samantha Zwiebel, Jose De Leon","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Objective: </strong>Benzodiazepines, particularly lorazepam, are good options for acute catatonia treatment. Published catatonia literature on benzodiazepine maintenance treatment and benzodiazepine tolerance is limited.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>This is a chart review covering 30 years of clinical experience in the state of Kentucky, (United States of America), where there was no easy access to electroconvulsive therapy. Nine patients with prolonged catatonia requiring benzodiazepine maintenance treatment were selected for review.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Three cases were switched from oral lorazepam to oral clonazepam, but relapses happened in 2 of them. Two patients lost their response to lorazepam and clonazepam. One with periodic catatonia needed ECT added to maintenance lorazepam. The other patient had 3 episodes of catatonia secondary to sudden clozapine withdrawal and required a restart of clozapine. Four patients were treated only with lorazepam. Two of them had relapses due to non-adherence or taper and needed indefinite lorazepam maintenance with no known relapses. One case initially responded to 1.5 mg/day of oral lorazepam but the dosage had to be increased to 18 mg/day to keep the response. Chronic tolerance requiring higher doses was present in 4 of the 9 patients and 2 of them were catatonic for many months.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Some patients may need to continue benzodiazepines indefinitely for maintenance treatment of catatonia following failed attempts at tapering. Sudden benzodiazepine discontinuation or non-adherence can lead to loss of benzodiazepine response or need for higher doses. A cross-taper from lorazepam to clonazepam can be accomplished, but is challenging and may result in relapse. \u0000(Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2024; 26(4): 243-260)</p>","PeriodicalId":39762,"journal":{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica","volume":"26 4","pages":"243-260"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142932217","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A 21st-century update of Claude Bernard's Theory about the Constancy of the Internal Environment.","authors":"Andras Sikter","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The discovery of the functioning of intra- and extracellular ion compartments and cell membranes' operation opened the possibility of extending Claude Bernard's theory to intracellular ions. In contrast, by underestimating the role of ions, many misconceptions have prevailed. The author points out that maintaining the constancy of carbon dioxide is especially important. CO2 is one of the most decisive signalling molecules, a mediator connecting the body and the soul. It interacts with intracellular pH, Ca2+, H2PO4- and HPO42- ions, but the intracellular ion pattern, as a whole, also has a primary signalling function. Chronic stress changes the intracellular ion patterns, increasing or decreasing the pCO2 level, an increase in the HCO3-/Cl- ratio leads to Metabolic Syndrome. The HCO3-/Cl- ratio decrease due to chronic hypocapnia results in hyperarousal mental disorders, which seem reversible for decades. The organism starts to get exhausted around 50, and it is not excluded that respiratory alkalosis could turn into metabolic acidosis, making the kidneys reactor organs. (The hypothesis still needs to be verified.) The background of stress-caused age-related diseases is the threat of intracellular acidosis and the organism's fighting against it. With chronic hypo- vs hypercapnia, the humoral counter-regulation cannot fulfil its function and can result in (e.g.) salt-sensitive vs salt-resistant hypertension, respectively. Preserving the original ion pattern is essential but impossible without euventilation. We could control ventilation and stress by administering H2PO4- and HPO42- ion salts. The life span correlates with the Body Cell Mass (BCM); we should preserve it as long as possible.\u0000(Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2024; 26(4): 227-242)</p>","PeriodicalId":39762,"journal":{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica","volume":"26 4","pages":"227-242"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142932993","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}