Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications最新文献

{"title":"BIoU: An Improved Bounding Box Regression for Object Detection","authors":"N. Ravi, Sami Naqvi, M. El-Sharkawy","doi":"10.3390/jlpea12040051","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jlpea12040051","url":null,"abstract":"Object detection is a predominant challenge in computer vision and image processing to detect instances of objects of various classes within an image or video. Recently, a new domain of vehicular platforms, e-scooters, has been widely used across domestic and urban environments. The driving behavior of e-scooter users significantly differs from other vehicles on the road, and their interactions with pedestrians are also increasing. To ensure pedestrian safety and develop an efficient traffic monitoring system, a reliable object detection system for e-scooters is required. However, existing object detectors based on IoU loss functions suffer various drawbacks when dealing with densely packed objects or inaccurate predictions. To address this problem, a new loss function, balanced-IoU (BIoU), is proposed in this article. This loss function considers the parameterized distance between the centers and the minimum and maximum edges of the bounding boxes to address the localization problem. With the help of synthetic data, a simulation experiment was carried out to analyze the bounding box regression of various losses. Extensive experiments have been carried out on a two-stage object detector, MASK_RCNN, and single-stage object detectors such as YOLOv5n6, YOLOv5x on Microsoft Common Objects in Context, SKU110k, and our custom e-scooter dataset. The proposed loss function demonstrated an increment of 3.70% at APS on the COCO dataset, 6.20% at AP55 on SKU110k, and 9.03% at AP80 of the custom e-scooter dataset.","PeriodicalId":38100,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2022-09-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44198516","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Designing Energy-Efficient Approximate Multipliers","authors":"S. Perri, F. Spagnolo, F. Frustaci, P. Corsonello","doi":"10.3390/jlpea12040049","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jlpea12040049","url":null,"abstract":"This paper proposes a novel approach suitable to design energy-efficient approximate multipliers using both ASIC and FPGAs. The new strategy harnesses specific encoding logics based on bit significance and computes the approximate product performing accurate sub-multiplications by applying an unconventional approach instead of using approximate computational modules implementing traditional static or dynamic bit-truncation approaches. The proposed platform-independent architecture exhibits an energy saving of up to 80% over the accurate counterparts and significantly better behavior in terms of accuracy loss with respect to competitor approximate architectures. When employed in 2D digital filters and edge detectors, the novel approximate multipliers lead to an energy consumption up to ~82% lower than the accurate counterparts, which is up to ~2 times higher than that obtained by state-of-the-art competitors.","PeriodicalId":38100,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2022-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43574879","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"FAC-V: An FPGA-Based AES Coprocessor for RISC-V","authors":"T. Gomes, P. Sousa, M. Silva, M. Ekpanyapong, S. Pinto","doi":"10.3390/jlpea12040050","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jlpea12040050","url":null,"abstract":"In the new Internet of Things (IoT) era, embedded Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) technology is enabling the deployment of custom-tailored embedded IoT solutions for handling different application requirements and workloads. Combined with the open RISC-V Instruction Set Architecture (ISA), the FPGA technology provides endless opportunities to create reconfigurable IoT devices with different accelerators and coprocessors tightly and loosely coupled with the processor. When connecting IoT devices to the Internet, secure communications and data exchange are major concerns. However, adding security features requires extra capabilities from the already resource-constrained IoT devices. This article presents the FAC-V coprocessor, which is an FPGA-based solution for an RISC-V processor that can be deployed following two different coupling styles. FAC-V implements in hardware the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), one of the most widely used cryptographic algorithms in IoT low-end devices, at the cost of few FPGA resources. The conducted experiments demonstrate that FAC-V can achieve performance improvements of several orders of magnitude when compared to the software-only AES implementation; e.g., encrypting a message of 16 bytes with AES-256 can reach a performance gain of around 8000× with an energy consumption of 0.1 μJ.","PeriodicalId":38100,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2022-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48273190","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Time- and Amplitude-Controlled Power Noise Generator against SPA Attacks for FPGA-Based IoT Devices","authors":"L. Parrilla, Antonio García, Encarnación Castillo, S. Rodríguez-Bolívar, J. A. López-Villanueva","doi":"10.3390/jlpea12030048","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jlpea12030048","url":null,"abstract":"Power noise generation for masking power traces is a powerful countermeasure against Simple Power Analysis (SPA), and it has also been used against Differential Power Analysis (DPA) or Correlation Power Analysis (CPA) in the case of cryptographic circuits. This technique makes use of power consumption generators as basic modules, which are usually based on ring oscillators when implemented on FPGAs. These modules can be used to generate power noise and to also extract digital signatures through the power side channel for Intellectual Property (IP) protection purposes. In this paper, a new power consumption generator, named Xored High Consuming Module (XHCM), is proposed. XHCM improves, when compared to others proposals in the literature, the amount of current consumption per LUT when implemented on FPGAs. Experimental results show that these modules can achieve current increments in the range from 2.4 mA (with only 16 LUTs on Artix-7 devices with a power consumption density of 0.75 mW/LUT when using a single HCM) to 11.1 mA (with 67 LUTs when using 8 XHCMs, with a power consumption density of 0.83 mW/LUT). Moreover, a version controlled by Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) has been developed, named PWM-XHCM, which is, as XHCM, suitable for power watermarking. In order to build countermeasures against SPA attacks, a multi-level XHCM (ML-XHCM) is also presented, which is capable of generating different power consumption levels with minimal area overhead (27 six-input LUTS for generating 16 different amplitude levels on Artix-7 devices). Finally, a randomized version, named RML-XHCM, has also been developed using two True Random Number Generators (TRNGs) to generate current consumption peaks with random amplitudes at random times. RML-XHCM requires less than 150 LUTs on Artix-7 devices. Taking into account these characteristics, two main contributions have been carried out in this article: first, XHCM and PWM-XHCM provide an efficient power consumption generator for extracting digital signatures through the power side channel, and on the other hand, ML-XHCM and RML-XHCM are powerful tools for the protection of processing units against SPA attacks in IoT devices implemented on FPGAs.","PeriodicalId":38100,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2022-09-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42319056","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"LoRa-Based Wireless Sensors Network for Rockfall and Landslide Monitoring: A Case Study in Pantelleria Island with Portable LoRaWAN Access","authors":"Mattia Ragnoli, A. Leoni, G. Barile, G. Ferri, V. Stornelli","doi":"10.3390/jlpea12030047","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jlpea12030047","url":null,"abstract":"Rockfalls and landslides are hazards triggered from geomorphological and climatic factors other than human interaction. The economic and social impacts are not negligible, therefore the topic has become an important field in the application of remote monitoring. Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are particularly suited for the deployment of such systems, thanks to the different technologies and topologies that are evolving nowadays. Among these, LoRa modulation technique represents a fitting technical solution for nodes communication in a WSN. In this paper, a smart autonomous LoRa-based rockfall and landslide monitoring system is presented. The structure has been operating in Pantelleria Island, Sicily, Italy. The sensing elements are disposed in sensor nodes arranged in a star topology. Network access to the LoRaWAN and the Internet is provided through gateways using a portable, solar powered device assembly. A system overview concerning both hardware and functionality of the nodes and gateways devices, then a power analysis is reported, and a monthly recorded result is presented, with related discussion.","PeriodicalId":38100,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2022-09-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47615612","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"High-Speed and Energy-Efficient Carry Look-Ahead Adder","authors":"P. Balasubramanian, N. Mastorakis","doi":"10.3390/jlpea12030046","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jlpea12030046","url":null,"abstract":"The carry look-ahead adder (CLA) is well known among the family of high-speed adders. However, a conventional CLA is not faster than other high-speed adders such as a conditional sum adder (CSA), a carry-select adder (CSLA), and the Kogge–Stone adder (KSA), which is the fastest parallel-prefix adder. Further, in terms of power-delay product (PDP) that characterizes the energy of digital circuits, the conventional CLA is not efficient compared to CSLA and KSA. In this context, this paper presents a high-speed and energy-efficient architecture for the CLA. Many adders ranging from ripple carry to parallel-prefix adders were implemented using a 32-28 nm CMOS standard digital cell library by considering a 32-bit addition. The adders were structurally described in Verilog and synthesized using Synopsys Design Compiler. From the results obtained, it is observed that the proposed CLA achieves a reduction in critical path delay by 55.3% and a reduction in PDP by 45% compared to the conventional CLA. Compared to the CSA, the proposed CLA achieves a reduction in critical path delay by 33.9%, a reduction in power by 26.1%, and a reduction in PDP by 51.1%. Compared to an optimized CSLA, the proposed CLA achieves a reduction in power by 35.4%, a reduction in area by 37.3%, and a reduction in PDP by 37.1% without sacrificing the speed. Although the KSA is faster, the proposed CLA achieves a reduction in power by 39.6%, a reduction in PDP by 6.5%, and a reduction in area by 55.6% in comparison.","PeriodicalId":38100,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2022-08-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42872724","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Computer Engineering Education Experiences with RISC-V Architectures—From Computer Architecture to Microcontrollers","authors":"P. Jamieson, H. Le, Nathan Martin, Tyler McGrew, Yicheng Qian, Eric Schonauer, Alan Ehret, M. Kinsy","doi":"10.3390/jlpea12030045","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jlpea12030045","url":null,"abstract":"With the growing popularity of RISC-V and various open-source released RISC-V processors, it is now possible for computer engineers students to explore this simple and relevant architecture, and also, these students can explore and design a microcontroller at a low-level using real tool-flows and implement and test their hardware. In this work, we describe our experiences with undergraduate engineers building RISC-V architectures on an FPGA and then extending their experiences to implement an Arduino-like RISC-V tool-flow and the respective hardware and software to handle input-output ports, interrupts, hardware timers, and communication protocols. The microcontroller is implemented on an FPGA as a Senior Design project to test the viability of such efforts. In this work, we will explain how undergraduates can achieve these experiences including preparation for these projects, the tool-flows they use, the challenges in understanding and extending a RISC-V processor with microcontroller functionality, and a suggestion of how to integrate this learning into an existing curriculum, including a discussion on if we should include these deeper experiences in the Computer Engineering undergraduate curriculum.","PeriodicalId":38100,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2022-08-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46298764","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Review on the Basic Circuit Elements and Memristor Interpretation: Analysis, Technology and Applications","authors":"A. Isah, J. Bilbault","doi":"10.3390/jlpea12030044","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jlpea12030044","url":null,"abstract":"Circuit or electronic components are useful elements allowing the realization of different circuit functionalities. The resistor, capacitor and inductor represent the three commonly known basic passive circuit elements owing to their fundamental nature relating them to the four circuit variables, namely voltage, magnetic flux, current and electric charge. The memory resistor (or memristor) was claimed to be the fourth basic passive circuit element, complementing the resistor, capacitor and inductor. This paper presents a review on the four basic passive circuit elements. After a brief recall on the first three known basic passive circuit elements, a thorough description of the memristor follows. Memristor sparks interest in the scientific community due to its interesting features, for example nano-scalability, memory capability, conductance modulation, connection flexibility and compatibility with CMOS technology, etc. These features among many others are currently in high demand on an industrial scale. For this reason, thousands of memristor-based applications are reported. Hence, the paper presents an in-depth overview of the philosophical argumentations of memristor, technologies and applications.","PeriodicalId":38100,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2022-08-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41406837","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Subthreshold Layout Strategy for Faster and Lower Energy Complex Digital Circuits","authors":"Jordan Morris, Pranay Prabhat, James Myers, A. Yakovlev","doi":"10.3390/jlpea12030043","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jlpea12030043","url":null,"abstract":"This work presents complex circuitry from subthreshold standard cell libraries created by geometric STI spacer patterning for bulk planar CMOS technology nodes. Performance/leakage granularity enhancement affords safer multi-Vt synthesis in aggressive voltage scaling schemes. Libraries are evaluated in silicon through implementation of 32-bit datapath 128-bit AES cores. Intra-die nominal temperature (20 °C) analysis reveals improvements of up to 8.65×/24% MEP-to-MEP in frequency and energy-per-cycle respectively, compared to a state-of-the-art subthreshold library. A negative temperature correlation with performance enhancement is demonstrated extending beyond the cell level and into more complex designs. MEP-to-MEP performance enhancement and energy-per-cycle reduction are demonstrated over a temperature range of 0 °C to 85 °C.","PeriodicalId":38100,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2022-08-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48935209","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Benefits and Costs of Netlist Randomization Based Side-Channel Countermeasures: An In-Depth Evaluation","authors":"Ali Asghar, A. Becher, Daniel Ziener","doi":"10.3390/jlpea12030042","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jlpea12030042","url":null,"abstract":"Exchanging FPGA-based implementations of cryptographic algorithms during run-time using netlist randomized versions has been introduced recently as a unique countermeasure against side channel attacks. Using partial reconfiguration, it is possible to shuffle between structurally different but functionally similar versions of a cryptographic implementation. The resulting varying power profile enhances the resistance against power-based side channel attacks. While side channel leakage is reduced, costs in terms of additional resources and/or lowered throughput are often increased due to the overheads of the required online partial reconfiguration. In this work, we provide an in-depth evaluation of the leakage-area-throughput trade-off.","PeriodicalId":38100,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2022-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45472001","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}