Groundwater for Sustainable Development最新文献

{"title":"Seasonal changes in subsurface characteristics in the Lower Bengal Basin: Potential impacts on groundwater","authors":"Piya Mohasin ,&nbsp;G. Sumanth Kumar ,&nbsp;Tanvi Arora ,&nbsp;Sujata Ray","doi":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101368","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101368","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The risk of groundwater depletion is most significant if anthropogenic withdrawals are high in regions where the subsurface characteristics do not favor surface water infiltration and natural recharge. However, such regions have not been identified systematically in the Indo-Gangetic basin, one of the most fertile alluvial aquifers in the world. This identification may be enabled by a study of how seasonal changes in subsurface characteristics affect groundwater levels. We conducted a resistivity survey in Nanoor block of the Lower Ganges Basin, where groundwater levels have declined steeply in recent decades, to determine how subsurface characteristics controlling infiltration and groundwater quality may change seasonally. Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) using the Schlumberger electrode array were conducted over an 8 km² area with an electrode spacing of 180-200 meters during the pre-monsoon (April 2018) and post-monsoon (October 2018) seasons. Seasonal variations in the Dar- Zarrouk parameters: longitudinal conductance, transverse resistance, and the coefficient of anisotropy were evaluated. While the average longitudinal conductance remained unchanged across seasons, it increased in certain locations in post-monsoon, indicating potential risks of contamination from the surface. The transverse resistance significantly increased in the post-monsoon, suggesting reduced groundwater potential. Additionally, in some areas, the coefficient of anisotropy indicated increased compaction of overburden layers in the post-monsoon, suggesting decreased natural recharge potential. Finally, the thickness of the unsaturated zone increased significantly from pre-monsoon to post-monsoon, which may be attributed to groundwater withdrawal for irrigation during the Kharif cropping season. These results indicate that this region, heavily reliant on groundwater for irrigation, is characterized by subsurface properties that allow limited natural recharge potential. This study may provide a framework for managing groundwater resources in developing countries where anthropogenic withdrawals are likely to have a more significant impact on groundwater levels than reduced natural recharge due to changing rainfall characteristics.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37879,"journal":{"name":"Groundwater for Sustainable Development","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 101368"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2024-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142660592","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Shallow groundwater potential mapping and evaluation for climate resilient smallholder irrigation in the Zeway-Shalla Sub-basin, Ethiopia","authors":"Taye Alemayehu Hulluka ,&nbsp;Girma Yimer Ebrahim ,&nbsp;Alemseged Tamiru Haile ,&nbsp;Amare Haileslassie","doi":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101367","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101367","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":37879,"journal":{"name":"Groundwater for Sustainable Development","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 101367"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2024-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142660509","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Critical analysis of enhanced microbial bioremediation strategies of PAHs contaminated sites: Toxicity and techno-economic analysis","authors":"Y.P. Ragini ,&nbsp;Jeyanthi Palanivelu ,&nbsp;R.V. Hemavathy","doi":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101369","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101369","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pose significant threats to environmental integrity and public health due to their high toxicity, persistence, and potential for bioaccumulation. In contaminated soils, PAH concentrations typically range from 1 to 100 mg/kg, with severely polluted areas reaching up to 1000 mg/kg. Conventional bioremediation techniques, limited to 30–50% efficiency, underscore the need for more effective solutions. This review highlights recent advancements in microbial bioremediation strategies, demonstrating removal efficiencies of 80–90% through the utilization of functional microorganisms, which metabolize PAHs into non-toxic compounds. Innovative techniques such as genetic engineering, microbial immobilization, and nanotechnology are shown to achieve over 90% pollutant removal. The review discusses key metabolic pathways and enzymatic processes driving PAH degradation, such as ring-hydroxylation and oxygenation. Techno-economic assessments indicate up to 40% cost savings and improved energy efficiency compared to conventional methods, facilitating scalability for large-scale environmental restoration projects. Microbial solutions for groundwater pollution, where PAH levels often exceed the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 0.2 μg/L, are found to be highly effective in mitigating ecological risks and protecting public health. This comprehensive analysis highlights the promising role of advanced microbial bioremediation techniques in addressing PAH contamination across diverse ecosystems, including soils, sediments, and aquatic environments.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37879,"journal":{"name":"Groundwater for Sustainable Development","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 101369"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2024-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142660494","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Geothermal aided advanced desalination of highly saline water: From technology development to seasonal impact optimization","authors":"Dipti Chaudhary ,&nbsp;Anirbid Sircar ,&nbsp;Roshni Kumari ,&nbsp;Namrata Bist ,&nbsp;Kriti Yadav ,&nbsp;Kelvy P. Dalsania","doi":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101379","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101379","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Access to clean drinking water is a critical global imperative, particularly in regions facing water scarcity. The present study aims to explore a sustainable approach for enhancing water quality by desalinating geothermal water which is extracted from a geothermal hotspot at Dholera, Gujarat. Since there is a shortage of clean and potable water in the area, it is advisable to use this renewable resource for drinking and irrigation purpose after treatment through a suitable method powered by organic rankine cycle (ORC) which not only serves the aim of sustainable approach but also has minimum environmental impact. The investigation illustrates fabrication and demonstration of geothermal-aided desalination unit and its plant set up at the study area for qualitative desalination of highly saline water. The system's performance is evaluated for seasonal variations in geothermal water, both before and after desalination. Results shows a significant reduction in contaminants, with decrease in salinity by 95.30% and total dissolved solids (TDS) by 96.91%. The novelty of this approach lies in salt extraction from the by-product of rejected water, contributing to resource recovery. This approach demonstrates an environmentally friendly and sustainable solution to address water scarcity in the region which is aligned with sustainable development goals (SDGs). The process's effectiveness for implementation is suggested by the strong p-values (all &lt;0.001). Additionally, the Cohen's d values, which are noticeably high across all parameters, indicate strong effect sizes ensuring desalination's viability for practical uses such as irrigation and safe drinking.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37879,"journal":{"name":"Groundwater for Sustainable Development","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 101379"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2024-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142660507","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessing anthropogenic and natural influences on water quality in a critical shallow groundwater system: Insights from the Metauro River basin (Central Italy)","authors":"Marco Taussi ,&nbsp;Giovanni Vespasiano ,&nbsp;Lorenzo Chemeri ,&nbsp;Roberta Bonì ,&nbsp;Barbara Nisi ,&nbsp;Orlando Vaselli ,&nbsp;Antonio Delgado-Huertas ,&nbsp;Carmine Apollaro ,&nbsp;Daniele Tardani ,&nbsp;Daniele Farina ,&nbsp;Alberto Renzulli","doi":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101361","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101361","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This work aims at the hydro-geochemical and isotopic characterization of the water resource (surface water and shallow phreatic aquifer) of the Metauro River catchment (Marche, Central Italy). The waters of the Metauro River area represent a fundamental resource exploited daily for drinking, agricultural, and industrial uses. The anthropic pressure exposes the water resources to depletion and quality degradation risks, making the study area of high scientific and social interest. The hydro-geochemical approach revealed that the interaction between water and local lithologies led to Ca²⁺-HCO₃^- compositions, with less frequent Na⁺(K⁺)-Cl^- and Ca²⁺-Cl^- hydrofacies and variable salinity (up to 55 meq/L). Most waters showed natural (e.g., halite and evaporite contribution) and anthropogenic (sewage, septic tanks, manure, urban wastewater, and industrial effluents contribution) inputs confirmed by both Na⁺, Cl⁻, NO₃⁻, and SO₄²⁻ enrichments and high Cl/Br ratios. The anthropogenic contributions is further confirmed by the relatively high contents of TPTEs (Total Potentially Toxic Elements), even though these elements individually present values below the Italian Normative Legislative limit. Geochemical issues are mitigated during the year when the surface aquifer is recharged by the river, characterized by a better overall chemical quality. The occurrence of this relationship is of interest to the local authorities in charge of the water resource management. In fact, groundwater exploitation could be increased during specific periods, thus decreasing the anthropic pressure on the river waters, usually exploited for drinking purposes even during the summer seasons when the hydrometric levels drastically drop. The adopted multidisciplinary approach provides an effective tool for accurately determining groundwater processes and can be helpful in improving the balanced and sustainable management of water resources in coastal and non-coastal plains.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37879,"journal":{"name":"Groundwater for Sustainable Development","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 101361"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2024-10-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142529325","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Microplastics in water from the Cooum River, Chennai, India: An assessment of their distribution, composition, and environmental impact","authors":"J. Mohamed Afzal ,&nbsp;S. Selvam ,&nbsp;P. Saravanan ,&nbsp;Priyadarsi D. Roy ,&nbsp;P. Sanju ,&nbsp;P. Muthukumar","doi":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101362","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101362","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Widespread nature of microplastics in rivers and their tributaries causes enormous harm to the aquatic environment. The present study investigates quantity, color, size, form, and composition of microplastics present in water from the Cooum River of Chennai in India. A total of 341 microplastics observed in water samples (n = 10) were characterized by transparent particles (42%) of mainly polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polypropylene (PP). About 69% of the particles with size &lt;1000 μm raise the possibility of being ingested by aquatic species. Fiber was the most common shape (48%), followed by film (20%), pellets (12%), fragments (12%), beads (5%), and foam (4%). Variable abundances of different shapes demonstrate a variety of sources, including the textile fibers and plastic breakdown. Polymers with high-risk ratings such as nylon and polypropylene are reflected with an estimated high Polymer Hazard Index (PHI &gt;1000) in some samples. Pollution Load Index suggested that samples along the river are moderately contaminated with microplastics. However, the Polymer Hazard Index (PERI) showed low ecological risk in the metropolitan area, river mouth, and potential fishing zones. These findings highlight ecological impact from the ubiquity of microplastics in waters from the Cooum River. Thus, the minimizing of microplastic pollution would require immediate action, including the implementation of stringent waste management and pollution reduction techniques.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37879,"journal":{"name":"Groundwater for Sustainable Development","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 101362"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2024-10-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142529863","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effect of salinity-clay variation on the transient magnetic field in the Quaternary aquifer, theoretically and practically","authors":"A.A. Mustafa ,&nbsp;A. S. A. Abu El-Ata ,&nbsp;A.K. Kamal ,&nbsp;A.M.S. Lala ,&nbsp;A.I. Ammar","doi":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101360","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101360","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study focuses on understanding the physical foundations of the transient electromagnetic method, such as the transition from a simple basic principle to a more complex principle, starting from the Biot-Savart law until the current concept. It calculates the steady and transient magnetic fields around any electrical wire system. Accordingly, this law will be used to determine the magnetic field around the square loop configuration, which matches the magnetic field arising from the circular loop configuration. The square loop equation was derived and extended to include changes in the half-space, which allows us to understand how the electromagnetic waves travel in the subsurface and the farthest point, that can record the TEM response from the TEM loop, according to the loop size and loop current. Accordingly, the deduced equations were applied to predict the transient magnetic field curves of the Quaternary aquifer in three different water zones along the Nile delta, depending on the values of resistivity and chargeability caused by the variations in salinity and clay contents. The calculated transient magnetic curves were then compared with other measured field curves to confirm the validity of the derived equations. Therefore, these curves are expected to be used as guide curves for the transient magnetic field response in this aquifer. Also, these curves are important in estimating the hydro-geophysical characteristics of the main groundwater aquifer in the selected area and in other areas with the same geologic and hydrogeologic settings. Also, a common model is presented for any delta environment in the world in measured and calculated data.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37879,"journal":{"name":"Groundwater for Sustainable Development","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 101360"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2024-10-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142529324","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Presenting a transdisciplinary robust approach for comprehensive assessment of large-scale underground water resources in western Indo-Gangetic Basin","authors":"Umair Khan ,&nbsp;Shiguo Wu ,&nbsp;Baoyi Zhang ,&nbsp;Majid Khan ,&nbsp;Junjin Chen ,&nbsp;Shafqat Hussain","doi":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101357","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101357","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Overexploitation, pollution, and anthropogenic activities threaten the sustainability of groundwater resources in the western Indo-Gangetic Basin. Meanwhile, distinguishing regions prone to contamination and understanding the natural and anthropogenic factors affecting groundwater quality is challenging due to the heterogeneous nature of aquifer systems and the lack of high-resolution spatial and temporal data on aquifer protective hydrogeological layers. This study presents a transdisciplinary robust approach combining regional electrical resistivity surveys, hydrogeological data, physicochemical analyses, and geospatial datasets to identify regions prone to contamination and understand the impacts of natural and anthropogenic factors on groundwater resources. This approach involves three key steps: evaluating the geohydraulic nature of aquifer protective hydrogeological layers, mapping the aquifer vulnerability index (AVI), and conducting comparative analyses of potentially vulnerable areas with groundwater quality index (GWQI) and hydrological factors. Firstly, model-based inversion of ID Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) data provides insights into geoelectrical indices such as depth, thickness, apparent resistivity, longitudinal conductance, transverse resistance, and longitudinal resistivity of aquifer protective hydrogeological layers. Second, the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model is used as a multilayer perceptron network to simulate hydraulic conductivity (K) using geoelectrical indices of aquifer protective hydrogeological layers. Subsequently, by considering ANN-derived K and VES-derived h of aquifer protective hydrogeological layers, the dynamic hydraulic resistance to the vertical flow of wastewater through the protective hydrogeological layers evaluated the index of the potentially vulnerable areas. Comparative analyses of potentially vulnerable areas with GWQI and hydrological factors (e.g., digital elevation model, soil, drainage density, lineament density, slope) enhance understanding regions prone to contaminants and land surface stress. Findings show that the ANN approach to simulate K, reducing effort with costs associated with slug testing is significant for AVI assessment. Furthermore, the geohydraulic characteristics, vulnerability indexing, and comparative analyses assist in identifying contamination-prone areas, improving groundwater resource protection and exploration activities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37879,"journal":{"name":"Groundwater for Sustainable Development","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 101357"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2024-10-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142529326","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The dilemma of choosing appropriate groundwater recharge estimation methods in Ethiopia: A systematic review of the existing methods","authors":"Atsbha Brhane Gebru ,&nbsp;Tesfamichael Gebreyohannes ,&nbsp;Gebrerufael Hailu Kahsay ,&nbsp;Berhane Grum","doi":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101358","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101358","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Knowledge of groundwater recharge is a prerequisite for sustainable management of water resources. However, in Ethiopia, recharge estimation methodology remains haphazard regarding selection and application of various methods. Therefore, the objective of this study is to review commonly applied groundwater recharge estimation methods in Ethiopia, identify and analyze the main challenges and limitations that affect the reliability of recharge estimates, and suggest insights for future research. For this purpose, a systematic literature review is conducted focusing on Ethiopia and similar regions. About 87.8% of the reviewed studies have applied only one recharge estimation method. The selection of recharge estimation methods is mainly dependent on the availability of data regardless of their appropriateness to the actual field conditions and the inherent limitations of the methods. Comparatively, the WetSpass, SWAT, water table fluctuation (WTF), and chloride mass balance (CMB) techniques are frequently applied methods in a decreasing order of 20, 18, 13, and 12% respectively. Insufficient areal coverage of rainfall data, inaccurate estimates of evapotranspiration, low performance to simulate peak stream flow data, inadequacy of soil and rainfall chloride data, and misappropriation of recharge estimation methods to the actual field conditions are the main challenges for the rise of uncertainty of these methods. In general, recharge studies that have applied various recharge estimation techniques in Ethiopia have one limitation in common – i.e., failure to provide sufficient verification of results. Hence, this study shows that recharge estimations in Ethiopia are less reliable so that recharge values cannot be trusted to make robust water resources development plans. Therefore, selection of recharge estimation methods should rely on prior identification of recharge mechanisms and appropriation of the method to actual field conditions. The verification process should be accompanied by adequate field data measurements.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37879,"journal":{"name":"Groundwater for Sustainable Development","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 101358"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2024-10-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142438398","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessing sources of groundwater quality and health risks using graphical, multivariate, and index techniques from a part of Rajasthan, India","authors":"Sangeeta Choudhary ,&nbsp;N. Subba Rao ,&nbsp;Maya Chaudhary ,&nbsp;Rashmirekha Das","doi":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101356","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101356","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;div&gt;&lt;div&gt;Groundwater provides sustainable potable water in developing countries like India. However, contaminated groundwater directly affects human health. The United Nation policy is to provide clean water for all by 2030. Therefore, groundwater samples collected from a part of Rajasthan, India were analysed for chemical parameters to identify the sources of groundwater quality variation and associated health risks. To achieve this objective, a comprehensive approach of entropy water quality index (EWQI), Piper and Gibbs diagrams, ionic ratios (IR), synthetic pollution index (SPI), principal component analysis (PCA), and non-carcinogenic health risk (NHR) methods were used. EWQI revealed that groundwater quality is not fit for drinking in 81.86% of the area due to higher TDS, Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msup&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;Cl&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/msup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msubsup&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;SO&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mn&gt;4&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;2&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/msubsup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msubsup&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;NO&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mn&gt;3&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/msubsup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, and &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msup&gt;&lt;mi&gt;F&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/msup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt; contents, which was statistically significant by ANOVA test. Modified Piper's diagram identified Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; - &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msubsup&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;HCO&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mn&gt;3&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/msubsup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; - &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msup&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;Cl&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/msup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;- &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msup&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;Cl&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/msup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, and Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; - &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msubsup&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;HCO&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mn&gt;3&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/msubsup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt; types in 36.67%, 22.73%, 13.64%, and 27.27% of groundwater samples, respectively. Gibbs diagrams illustrated that 59.09% and 40.81% of groundwater samples fell in the rock and evaporation domains, respectively. IR demonstrated that geogenic processes (mineral dissolution, ion exchange, and evaporation) and anthropogenic activities cause groundwater quality degradation. PCA indicated that PC1 has high loadings of TDS, Mg&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;, Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msup&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;Cl&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/msup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, and &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msubsup&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;SO&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mn&gt;4&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;2&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/msubsup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, PC2 shows high loadings of pH and &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msup&gt;&lt;mi&gt;F&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/msup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, and PC3 represents high loadings of &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msubsup&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;NO&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mn&gt;3&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/msubsup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, and &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msubsup&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;HCO&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mn&gt;3&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;/msubsup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, which was further supported by &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;-test analysis. SPI revealed that 99.82% of the study area is polluted. NHR values (0.03 to 1.68, 0.02 to 1.29, and 0.03 to 1.30 for children, women, and men, respectively) showed that long-term exposure to &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msubsup&gt;","PeriodicalId":37879,"journal":{"name":"Groundwater for Sustainable Development","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 101356"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2024-10-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142529862","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}