Is Russia Fascist?Pub Date : 2021-03-15DOI: 10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0002
M. Laruelle
{"title":"Russia’s “Fascism” or “Illiberalism”?","authors":"M. Laruelle","doi":"10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter explores the literature on generic fascism, on a supposed specific “Russian fascism,” and on the rise of illiberalism to posit the conceptual frames needed for the analysis of Russia. It also discusses the placement of fascism within the more general phenomenon of nationalism. The chapter views the primacy of a myth of regeneration as the driving engine that makes a vision of the world and society “fascist.” With such perspective, the chapter allows us to take into account the metapolitical dimension of fascism, which is critical for recognizing the phenomenon and dissociating it from other ideologies. It defines fascism as a metapolitical ideology that calls for the total destruction of modernity by creating an alternative world based on ancient values reconstructed with violent means. The chapter then shares the definition proposed by one of the main Russian scholars of fascism, Aleksandr A. Galkin, who characterized fascism as “rightist-conservative revolutionarism” (pravokonservativnyi revoliutsionarizm), emphasizing the revolutionary aspect more than the nationalist one. Ultimately, the chapter asserts that the terminological inflation of fascism that we currently observe obscures more than explains the structural transformations of our societies: the term illiberalism offers a significantly more heuristically helpful approach to capture the evolutions.","PeriodicalId":242339,"journal":{"name":"Is Russia Fascist?","volume":"03 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129850751","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Is Russia Fascist?Pub Date : 2021-03-15DOI: 10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0009
M. Laruelle
{"title":"Why the Russian Regime is not Fascist","authors":"M. Laruelle","doi":"10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0009","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter synthesizes the political niches inside state structures, the grassroots actors, and Russia's strategy of bolstering the European and U.S. far right into a broader discussion deconstructing the main theories of Russia's alleged fascism. It presents Timothy Snyder's argument in which he based his claim on historical analogies rather than on the advancement of a typology of fascism that would fit the current Russian regime. The chapter also demonstrates another aspect of the debate to be debunked following Russia's alleged fascism: the use of the concept of totalitarianism. The totalitarianism theory states that totalitarianism is a novel form of government that cannot be considered a higher degree of authoritarianism but is instead one of a kind. The chapter then shifts to discuss the Putin regime's missed core element of fascism: mass indoctrination and mobilization. Ultimately, the chapter identifies only one feature of a scholarly definition of fascism in the Russian regime: the militia subculture which is directly supported by state institution.","PeriodicalId":242339,"journal":{"name":"Is Russia Fascist?","volume":"64 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123945331","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Is Russia Fascist?Pub Date : 2021-03-15DOI: 10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0008
M. Laruelle
{"title":"Russia’s Honeymoon with the European Far Right","authors":"M. Laruelle","doi":"10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0008","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter examines how the Kremlin developed a policy of reaching out globally to Western far-right and populist parties. It asserts that today's Russia plays a multifaceted game of consolidating its soft power on the European stage. The chapter also reviews Russia's alliance with the European far right and its strengthening economic ties, especially energy partnerships; networking with big European businesses that are able to lobby their respective governments; and relaunching an offensive public diplomacy. It discusses the European far right's Russophile tendencies, admiring prerevolutionary Russia, whether for its autocratic regime or for the prominent role given to Orthodoxy. Ultimately, the chapter looks at the direct connections between Russians and European far-right groups after the collapse of the Iron Curtain and the opening of borders. It illustrates the mutual encounters of Russian far-right activists and Western European counterparts in three main phases: they were first pioneered by precursor figures in the 1990s, followed by the Russian Orthodox Church and the Rodina party in the early 2000s, before the relationship reached a peak when Moscow decided to position itself as the herald of a new moralist International during Vladimir Putin's third presidential mandate.","PeriodicalId":242339,"journal":{"name":"Is Russia Fascist?","volume":"6 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116879353","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Is Russia Fascist?Pub Date : 2021-03-15DOI: 10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0007
M. Laruelle
{"title":"Russia’s Fascist Thinkers and Doers","authors":"M. Laruelle","doi":"10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter looks into Russia's strategy of bolstering the European and U.S. far right. It addresses the fringe element of Russia's society that is inspired by extreme right arguments, adding its sociological basis remains difficult to grasp. The chapter then presents Russia's grassroots groups, which can be divided into several categories. It begins by discussing small far-right movements that try to adapt to the wider Zeitgeist and shift their doctrines from classic fascism to a defense of a Christian and white Russia resistant to migrants. The chapter also reviews a broader subculture of paramilitary and extreme combat sport communities that promote vigilantism with some elements of their repertoire identifiable as fascism light, such as a muscular masculinity and the cult of violence. Next it focuses on the Russian “thinkers,” those who spread the idea of Russia's Aryan identity, revamp race theories, or endorse the concept of the Conservative Revolution. Ultimately, the chapter examines how the groups' presence in the public space partly contributes to blurring Russia's antifascism posture.","PeriodicalId":242339,"journal":{"name":"Is Russia Fascist?","volume":"11 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115118893","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Is Russia Fascist?Pub Date : 2021-03-15DOI: 10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0001
M. Laruelle
{"title":"Russia and the Symbolic Landscape of Fascism","authors":"M. Laruelle","doi":"10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0001","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter presents some historical background of Russia and its use of the term fascism. It outlines the two narratives collided directly in the cited examples: Russia is a fascist country — or that its leaders are fascist — whereas the other defines Russia as a country that defeated fascism. To disentangle that puzzle in which so many actors accuse each other of the same evil, the chapter takes its cue from semiotics, that is, the understanding of words as communicative tools, or signs, that are both embedded in and shape our everyday meaning-making. The chapter presumes that ideas intersect intimately with politics and that the wording of our perceptions constitutes a critical part of the way we situate ourselves. Like any other word, fascism is a communicative tool based on implicit cultural backgrounds that make it possible for the audience to interpret the term. The chapter also draws on social constructionism, which asserts that social reality is created by human beings whose identity is a permanent, ongoing, and dynamic process of interacting with others and reacting to situations. The chapter then argues that fascism has become one of Russia's strategic narratives. Ultimately, the chapter explains why fascism should be studied as a discursive landscape, a mythmaking process that creates order from chaos and justifies power relationships on the international scene.","PeriodicalId":242339,"journal":{"name":"Is Russia Fascist?","volume":"43 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128673473","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Is Russia Fascist?Pub Date : 2021-03-15DOI: 10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0006
M. Laruelle
{"title":"The Putin Regime’s Ideological Plurality","authors":"M. Laruelle","doi":"10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0006","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter investigates where a supposed “Russian fascism” can be located, looking at the political niches inside state structures that may nurture such a narrative and the grassroots actors trying to promote different components of the fascist repertoire. It examines how the Putin regime has shown an impressive capacity to adapt to new contexts and take on new challenging geopolitical environments. The chapter then argues that the Putin regime, as an ad hoc construction, regularly purges itself by excluding some of its members while at the same time developing new strategies for co-opting other segments of society, which partly explains its longevity and ability to regularly rebound. It also demonstrates a large ideological plurality, with several ecosystems competing with each other by offering the Presidential Administration new ideological products in the hope of seeing them adopted at a higher level. The chapter also identifies two segments that sometimes play with the fascist repertoire as part of a broader continuum of reactionary ideologies: the military–industrial complex and the Orthodox realm.","PeriodicalId":242339,"journal":{"name":"Is Russia Fascist?","volume":"87 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128790856","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Is Russia Fascist?Pub Date : 2021-03-15DOI: 10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0005
M. Laruelle
{"title":"International Memory Wars","authors":"M. Laruelle","doi":"10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter argues that the perception of Russia as an antifascist power has been reinforced by memory wars that have reshaped the relationship between Russia and its Central and Eastern European neighbors. It examines how the emergence and gradual visibility gained by the narrative of the Soviet Union as an occupier with a totalitarian ideology shocked the Russian elite and public opinion. Given the context of memory wars, the chapter focuses on the issue of defining who was fascist and who colluded with Nazism — the Soviet Union between 1939 and 1941 or the collaborationist forces in Central and Eastern Europe. This chapter then presents Russia's response to the new memories articulated by Central and Eastern European countries on two fronts: legal and historiographical. Ultimately, the chapter highlights how the Ukrainian crisis demonstrated that memories have been instrumental in “real” wars, as all parties claim that their martyrdom and heroism during the Second World War entitle them to some recognition today.","PeriodicalId":242339,"journal":{"name":"Is Russia Fascist?","volume":"10 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128745279","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Is Russia Fascist?Pub Date : 2021-03-15DOI: 10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0003
M. Laruelle
{"title":"The Soviet Legacy in Thinking about Fascism","authors":"M. Laruelle","doi":"10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter goes back in time to look at the Soviet construction of the Russian term fashizm and some of the ambiguities that the Soviet society cultivated toward the term and its historical personification, Nazi Germany. It recalls that the term fascism (fashizm), in Soviet times, belonged more to an emotional than to an analytical lexicon. The chapter also discusses Russia's history and Russians' memories of the Second World War, called the Great Patriotic War in Russian (Velikaia otechestvennaia voina) and Victory Day (Den´ pobedy). It reviews how the cult of war is intimately linked to the Brezhnev era and provided the context in which commemoration of the Great Patriotic War was institutionalized as a sacred symbol of the Soviet Union, a confirmation of the soundness of the socialist system and the unity of its peoples. The chapter then argues that the very solemnity of Soviet anti-fascism, and its centrality to the country's political identity constitute the fundaments inherited from Soviet times on the basis of which the notion of fascism is operationalized in today's Russia. Ultimately, the chapter further elaborates the three main sources of the Soviet's cryptic fascination with Nazi Germany and source of knowledge about fashizm: the Nazi propaganda, criminal culture, and cinema and culture.","PeriodicalId":242339,"journal":{"name":"Is Russia Fascist?","volume":"41 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114865685","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Is Russia Fascist?Pub Date : 2021-03-15DOI: 10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0004
M. Laruelle
{"title":"Antifascism as the Renewed Social Consensus Under Putin","authors":"M. Laruelle","doi":"10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter delves into Russia's positioning as the antifascism power par excellence toward its domestic audience. It cultivates the memory of the Great Patriotic War as the cornerstone of social consensus, a powerful reservoir of meaning that allows celebrations of individuals' adhesion to the nation and its myths. The chapter argues that the memory of the war epitomized the good sides of the Soviet Union and integrated well within the current nostalgia for late Soviet culture and daily life. It then discusses how Vladimir Putin's policy of rehabilitating Soviet symbols contributed to relegitimizing the war as a critical moment in the nation's history. The chapter highlights the emergence of new commemorative practices and invented traditions, such as the Immortal Regiment and the St. George's Ribbon, as genuine grassroots initiatives. It analyses how the narrative on the war gradually coalesced, reinforced by legislative activity aimed to erase any questions about the state's historical legitimacy. The chapter also evaluates why textbooks, which seek to shape future citizens rather than build critical thinking skills, remain quite traditional in their analysis, even if some historically ambivalent moments such as collaborationism are briefly described. Ultimately, the chapter assesses the other consequence of the war's role as a foundational memory myth for Russia.","PeriodicalId":242339,"journal":{"name":"Is Russia Fascist?","volume":"9 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121500734","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Is Russia Fascist?Pub Date : 2021-03-15DOI: 10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0010
M. Laruelle
{"title":"Russia’s Memory and the Future of Europe","authors":"M. Laruelle","doi":"10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501754135.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter argues that the Russian regime does not exhibit doctrinal coherence and the “Putinism” is not a fixed category. It explains the Putin regime's ideational construction as a return to normalcy: political as well as geopolitical, economic, and cultural. This return to normalcy implies achieving a form of emotional security, or securitization, and dignity. The chapter also elaborates the distinction between Russia and “the West,” arguing that these distinctions are crucial, as Russia positions itself differently toward each. Russia's declared identification with Europe makes it possible to articulate three interlinked geopolitical projects. The first is to insist on the existence of a “true” Europe with conservative values, the second geopolitical project is to bring Russia closer to the Mediterranean, and the third project is to rebalance, at regular intervals, like a pendulum, the Europe–Asia equilibrium of Russian foreign policy. With such context, where both “the West” and Russia compete to define what Europe means, the chapter analyses how the strategic narrative on fascism takes form.","PeriodicalId":242339,"journal":{"name":"Is Russia Fascist?","volume":"149 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127221745","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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