State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)最新文献

{"title":"2. The Qing Central Government Institutions in Control of the Handicrafts","authors":"","doi":"10.1515/9789048537938-006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048537938-006","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter explores the institutional structure of those agencies of the Qing central government that controlled craft production and construction, together with one of their most important bureaucratic instruments, the handicraft regulations. Temporally it covers the entire range of the dynasty from the Ming-Qing transition through to the demise of the monarchy and the rise of the Republic of China. It does so by concentrating on the craft branches in the capital or in its close vicinity. For the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, during the transition to ‘modernity’ in the sense of mechanized production, innovations in the government vocational schools are discussed, and the industrial policies of the Qing administration are outlined. By the nineteenth century, a divergence between the court and the central government in terms of government policy towards the craft institutions can be analyzed on the basis of official documentation: while the government and provinces had their artisan staff reduced to practically nothing, the court institutions were strengthened rather than weakened.","PeriodicalId":199695,"journal":{"name":"State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)","volume":"22 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133104041","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"9. The Artisan’s Place: The ‘Four Occupational Groups’ and the Social Position of Craftspeople","authors":"","doi":"10.1515/9789048537938-013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048537938-013","url":null,"abstract":"In imperial and pre-imperial periods, Chinese governments made practical provisions to allocate and supervise skilled labour in the service of the state. A particular perspective of social hierarchy came with this system which expressly included artisans. The concept of the ‘four occupational groups’ originates from the intention of rulers and administrators to divide and settle the population according to occupations and to monitor their numbers and activities. Together with the assessment that scholars and farmers were ‘fundamental’ but artisans and merchants were ‘secondary’ or derived groups, this notion confirmed the dominance of agriculture and Confucian learning and administration.","PeriodicalId":199695,"journal":{"name":"State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)","volume":"58 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131190862","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"1. State Engagement in the Handicraft Sector","authors":"","doi":"10.1515/9789048537938-005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048537938-005","url":null,"abstract":"Textual and material evidence shows that since the Shang dynasty (ca. sixteenth to eleventh century B.C.), workshops for manufacturing and construction existed. They provided weapons and objects for ceremonial and everyday use for the court and the ruling elite and planned and executed great central building projects like palaces, city walls, and funerary monuments. A great number of bronze vessels were produced for the ceremonial use of the rulers. Archeologists have calculated that it would have taken 18 years ‒ if 10,000 earth pounders were engaged for 330 days per year ‒ to complete the stamped-earth city walls of an early Shang city located in the vicinity of modern Zhengzhou in Henan.1 Both cases suggest that the work organization lay in the hands of specialized groups who could command great and, in the case of the bronze casters, highly skilled manpower. These workers and artisans most probably stood in the immediate service of the rulers and were supervised by their off icials.2 Production and construction for the service of the state have been incorporated in various ways into the institutional frameworks of the ruling dynasties from that time onward. Between the third century B.C. and the tenth century A.D., government and civilian crafts and industries co-existed, and more state activist and more laissez-faire periods alternated in the longer dynasties of the Han and Tang. The short precursor dynasties Qin and Sui maintained a high degree of state activism, which was one of the reasons for their premature end. The labour force especially for building, but also in the workshops, often had to serve the state in corvée obligations or in slavery, but the level of unfree labour apparently diminished after having reached its apex in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Sui. In 494 A.D., permanent work obligations were f irst reported to have been replaced by work shifts from the Liu-Song of the Southern Dynasties.3 The shift system was used time and again in subsequent dynasties until the f irst years of the Qing. A","PeriodicalId":199695,"journal":{"name":"State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)","volume":"39 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123825106","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Index","authors":"","doi":"10.1515/9789048537938-017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048537938-017","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":199695,"journal":{"name":"State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)","volume":"19 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115997154","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"5. Private Shipbuilding, Private and Government Cooperation , and Procurement Prices","authors":"","doi":"10.1515/9789048537938-009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048537938-009","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":199695,"journal":{"name":"State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)","volume":"23 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127527010","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"4. Government Shipbuilding","authors":"","doi":"10.1515/9789048537938-008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048537938-008","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":199695,"journal":{"name":"State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)","volume":"67 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127042793","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"3. The Rise, Decline, and Reinforcement of the Crafts in the Service of the State","authors":"","doi":"10.1515/9789048537938-007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048537938-007","url":null,"abstract":"Historians’ opinions are divided as to the usefulness of the classical pattern of ascent, f lourishing, decay, and decline for the structural framework of analysis of political entities. In China, this had been a time-honoured concept applied to all dynastic histories. Yet it has been criticized because it focuses too much on the central government and is therefore not able to analyze socio-economic trends over periods that span several dynasties, most prominently the ‘commercial revolutions’ in the Song and the Ming.1 Nonetheless, since dynastic power did rise, flourish, and decline, this basic pattern for the shifts in power relations is certainly applicable to the core political decision-makers. This is especially so when it is combined with a complementary perspective on local and regional elites and bureaucracies, whose influence tends to increase after the central power has passed its apex.2 Naquin and Rawski have modif ied the paradigm with regard to the most influential networks or factions in the empire. In their three-phase model, imperial princes and Manchu institutions f irst wielded the greatest political power between 1644 and the 1730s; in the second phase, between the 1730s and the 1820s, the off icial examinations for both Manchus and Chinese were the career path to highest political influence, and the most powerful institution in the central government was the Grand Council. During the third phase, lasting from 1820 to the end of the Qing dynasty, extrabureaucratic, intellectual networks and provincial administrators dominated, although at the top of the central government, Manchu control resurged.3 It was not embodied in the persons of the young or weak emperors Xianfeng, Tongzhi, Guangxu, and Puyi but by their regents: Empress Dowager Cixi, the mother of the Tongzhi and the aunt of the Guangxu emperors, Prince Gong (Yixin, 1840-1891), the brother of the Xianfeng emperor, and Zaifeng (1883-1851), the father of the last emperor Puyi. In this sense, this could be considered dynastic decline if the power of the dynasty is associated only with the influence of the emperor. However,","PeriodicalId":199695,"journal":{"name":"State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)","volume":"130 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132616524","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"7. Printing in the Service of the State","authors":"","doi":"10.1515/9789048537938-011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048537938-011","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":199695,"journal":{"name":"State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)","volume":"5 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116809181","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"List of Tables and Illustrations","authors":"Yubei da huang","doi":"10.1515/9789048537938-001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048537938-001","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":199695,"journal":{"name":"State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)","volume":"11 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131117424","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"10. Merchant and Craft Guilds","authors":"","doi":"10.1515/9789048537938-014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048537938-014","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":199695,"journal":{"name":"State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)","volume":"43 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121953115","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}