Patty's Toxicology最新文献

{"title":"Silver and gold","authors":"Nadine Meyer, E. Schuh, Helene A. Seeger, F. Mohr","doi":"10.1039/C2IC90036J","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1039/C2IC90036J","url":null,"abstract":"This article reviews the literature reported during 2011 on gold and silver coordination and organometallic chemistry, focusing on synthetic applications (catalysis, coupling reactions, transmetallation), photochemical properties, biochemical studies as well as compounds with unique structural features. Gold and silver nanomaterials, self-assembled monolayers on Au surfaces as well as other metallic compounds (alloys) of gold and silver are not included.","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2007-07-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78656057","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Unsaturated Halogenated Hydrocarbons","authors":"R. Lemen","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX064","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX064","url":null,"abstract":"This article contains details on eleven unsaturated halogenated hydrocarbons. These compounds are used as fumigants, pesticides, and chemical intermediates. This chapter follows the outline determined for compounds and includes physical and chemical properties, odor and warning properties, exposure assessment in air and workplace, Toxic effects includes data on the human experience, epidemiology studies, community methods for monitoring, and the standards, regulations and guidelines are discussed. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Dichloroacetylene is a highly toxic, spontaneously combustible, undesired, and noncommercial product of the dehydrochlorination of trichloroethylene. It has resulted from exposure of trichloroethylene vapor to Hopcalite in a closed environmental system (submarine) and soda lime in closed circuit (rebreathing) anesthesia machines and from exposure of trichloroethylene liquid to caustic in degreaser tanks. It may also be an undesired by-product during chemical processes such as production of vinylidine chloride. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Because of its recognized toxicity, allyl chloride has generally been handled carefully during its manufacture. Eye irritation resulting from overexposure to the vapors has been the most frequent complaint. Although hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) has been used as a pesticide in other countries, exposure in the United States has mostly been as an unwanted by-product of certain processes associated with chlorination of hydrocarbons. It is reported to have some use as a chemical intermediate. In the United States it was also used for recovering chlorine-containing products and as a fluid for gyroscopes. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Old reviews of the toxicity of β-chloroprene are available, but surprisingly few new references were found since the Third Revised Edition of this publication. What is available tends to support the conclusions of that edition. At high concentrations β-chloroprene has an anesthetic action, but this is not as important as eye and respiratory tract irritation and liver injury, which result from excessive exposures. Hair loss has also been reported in humans and animals exposed to β-chloroprene. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Because vinyl chloride is a gas, the only significant route of toxic industrial exposure is inhalation. Ingesting low levels for a long period of time has also produced adverse effects, including cancer in animals. If vinyl chloride is confined on the skin in a liquid, some might be expected to be absorbed, but the relative amount is small. The likelihood of acute toxic effects is not nearly as significant as are liver injury, angiosarcoma of the liver, liver and biliary cancer, and possibly acroosteolysis. It appears that metabolism of vinyl chloride is necessary before many of its toxic effects occur. Numerous reviews, bibliographies, and key references are available, and many regulations apply to handling vinyl chloride. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Trichloroethylene has been in commercial use for almost 60 years. TCE has been used as a solvent because of it","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2004-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87688925","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Pathways and Measuring Exposure to Toxic Substances","authors":"M. Lippmann","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX002.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX002.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"For toxic substances in the environment to exert adverse effects on humans, they must deposit on and/or penetrate through a body surface and reach target sites where they can alter normal functions and/or structures. The critical pathways and target sites can vary greatly from substance to substance and, for a given substance, can vary with its chemical and physical form. A further complication arises from the fact that chemical and/or metabolic transformations can take place between deposition on a body surface and the eventual arrival of a toxic substance or metabolite of that substance at a critical target site. A critical target site is where the toxic effect of first or greatest concern takes place. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000This chapter reviews and summarizes current knowledge concerning the generic aspects of the environmental pathways and processes leading to: (1) deposition of toxicants on body surfaces (skin, respiratory tract, and gastrointestinal tract); (2) uptake of toxicants by epithelial cells from environmental media (air, water, waste, and food); (3) translocation and clearance pathways within the body for toxicants that penetrate a surface epithelium; and (4) the influence of chemical and physical form of the toxicant on the metabolism and pathways of the chemical of concern. Where the physical attributes of the toxicant such as the length and biopersistence of airborne fibers are of generic concern, these are also discussed in this chapter. Other aspects of the pathways and the fates of toxicants that are specific to the chemical species that are the subject of the following chapters of this volume are discussed, as appropriate, in those chapters. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000This chapter also summarizes and discusses techniques for measuring personal and population exposures to environmental toxicants and their temporal and spatial distributions. Quantitative exposure assessment, as a component of risk assessment, involves consideration of: (1) the nature and properties of chemicals in environmental media; (2) the presence in environmental media of the specific chemicals that are expected to exert toxic effects; (3) the temporal and spatial distributions of the exposures of interest; and (4) the ways that ambient or workplace exposure measurements or models can be used to draw exposure inferences. In this context, the knowledge of deposition, fate, pathways, and rates of metabolism and transport within the body, to be reviewed later in this chapter, provide appropriate rationales for size-selective aerosol sampling approaches and/or usage of biomarkers of exposure. Finally, this chapter discusses the choices of sampling times, intervals, rates, durations, and schedules that are most appropriate for exposure measurements and/or modeling and are most relevant to risk assessment strategies that reflect data needs for: (1) documenting compliance with exposure standards; (2) performing epidemiological studies of exposure–response relationships; (3) developing improved ex","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2003-04-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77950910","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology","authors":"C. Kimmel, J. Buelke-Sam","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX003","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter provides a brief overview of normal reproduction and development, as well as examples of how toxic agents may impact these processes. It summarizes the types of studies conducted and data collected as part of routine toxicity testing. Assumptions that must be made in the risk assessment process and an evaluation of data from both animal and human studies used in this process are discussed. The integration of hazard data (both animal and human) and dose–response information is described, and exposure estimates in the final characterization of risk are summarized. Advances have been made in our understanding of reproductive and developmental toxicity, particularly as the integration of molecular biology and toxicology has grown. However, there are still many gaps in our knowledge of both normal and abnormal reproductive and developmental processes. Further research will continue to fill these gaps and enhance our ability to identify more specific susceptible events in these processes and ultimately reduce adverse reproductive and developmental outcomes due to chemical exposures. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The views expressed in this chapter are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Mention of trade names of commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Reproduction; \u0000Overview; \u0000Gametagenesis; \u0000Fertilization; \u0000Development; \u0000Testing; \u0000Guidelines; \u0000Pharmaceuticals; \u0000Germ cell toxicity; \u0000Risk assessment; \u0000Dose-response relationship; \u0000Exposure assessment","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72608526","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Titanium, Zirconium, and Hafnium","authors":"L. I. Murthy, D. Dankovic, R. Murthy","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX035","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX035","url":null,"abstract":"Titanium, zirconium, and hafnium belong to the transition Group IV B elements of the periodic table. A characteristic feature of these transition elements is the ease with which they form stable complex ions. Features that contribute to this ability are favorably high charge-to-radius ratios and the availability of unfilled d orbitals. The facility in forming metallic bonds is demonstrated by the existence of a wide variety of alloys among different transition metals. Another feature of these metals is characterized by their high densities, high melting points, and low vapor pressures. Within this group, these properties tend to increase with increasing atomic weight. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000This chapter discusses the chemical and physical properties followed by the toxicity of each chemical and compound in three sections: Section A provides details on titanium, Section B on zirconium, and Section C on hafnium. Tables present the atomic number, atomic weight, and natural isotopes of titanium, zirconium, and hafnium. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Titanium; \u0000Zirconium; \u0000Hafnium; \u0000Physical and chemical properties; \u0000Production; \u0000Use; \u0000Toxic effects; \u0000Exposure assessment; \u0000Occurrence; \u0000Alloys; \u0000By products; \u0000Lung function; \u0000Standards; \u0000Guidelines; \u0000Regulations; \u0000Superalloys; \u0000Titanium compounds; \u0000Zirconium compounds; \u0000hafnium compounds","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88632613","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Aldehydes and Acetals","authors":"M. Morandi, S. Maberti","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX073","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX073","url":null,"abstract":"More than 300 aldehydes occur in foods, water, and air. Due to the electrophilicity of the carbonyl carbon, particularly when proximal to a carbon–carbon double bond, aldehydes react with thiols and amines to form protein–protein, DNA–protein, and DNA–DNA cross-links. Despite their potential for causing cell damage, toxicological and exposure data for a large number of aldehydes are lacking. Inhalation and ingestion studies have demonstrated that a number of aldehydes are irritants and can induce tumors in animal models. Formaldehyde which is a suspected carcinogen is the most widely studied of these compounds. The physicochemical properties of saturated aldehydes are summarized. Toxicological and health effects are presented. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Saturated aliphatic aldehydes; \u0000Formaldehyde; \u0000Urea-formaldehyde resins; \u0000EPA; \u0000Clean Air Act; \u0000Flavoring agents; \u0000Unsaturated aliphatic aldehydes; \u0000Halogenated aldehydes; \u0000Aliphatic dialdehydes; \u0000Aromatic aldehydes; \u0000Heterocyclic aldehydes; \u0000Acetals","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89622156","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Aromatic Hydrocarbons—Benzene and Other Alkylbenzenes","authors":"R. Henderson","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX051","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX051","url":null,"abstract":"Benzene and its alkyl derivatives are monocyclic aromatic compounds (arenes). The compounds are of considerable economic importance as industrial raw materials, solvents, and components of innumerable commercial and consumer products. The aromatics differ vastly in chemical, physical, and biologic characteristics from the aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons. The aromatics are more toxic to humans and other mammals; of prime importance are (1) the hematopoietic toxicity of benzene resulting in aplastic anemia in humans and other mammalian species, (2) benzene-induced leukemia in humans, and (3) the cerebellar lesions and loss of central nervous system (CNS) integrative functions in “glue sniffers” exposed to high levels of toluene. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The simplest single-ring aromatic hydrocarbon compound is benzene, the nonsubstituted ring system. When one methyl group is attached to the ring, toluene is formed, and with two attached methyl groups, xylene is formed. Xylene occurs in three isomeric forms. The hemimellitines and mesitylenes possess three methyl groups, durene four, and the penta- and hexamethylbenzenes, five and six methyl groups, respectively. Other industrially important compounds are ethylbenzene and isopropylbenzene or cumene. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Aromatic hydrocarbons; \u0000benzene; \u0000alkylbenzenes; \u0000Environmental impact","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90476952","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Chemical and Physical Agent Interaction","authors":"P. Nylén, Ann-Christin Johnson, Anders Englund","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX109","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX109","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter, concerning interactions at simultaneous or successive exposure to both physical and chemical factors, focuses on the industrial environment. Examples of this kind of interaction can probably be found in a large variety of totally different and unrelated areas, and the present text is not intended to be a complete review but to present illustrative examples of studies and occupational areas in which such interactions are included. Reported findings are of both physicochemical and biological nature, most often descriptive observations, and referred papers rarely include mechanistic information or hypotheses. Exposure levels are often higher than those found at today's work sites, and the possibility of using data for making reasonable, adequate extrapolations often remains unknown. Despite these limitations, it is the main intentions of the present text to inform and alert occupational health practitioners and other interested readers about what attempts have been made so far to gain knowledge about the situation in the vast majority of work sites, specifically, combined exposure to both at least one physical agent and one chemical agent. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The presentation is ordered using the respective physical factors as subtitles under which published data concerning the particular factor's interaction with different chemicals are presented. Physical factors presented are mechanical factors such as sound waves (most often referred to as “noise”) and vibrations; the thermal factors heat and cold, electrostatic fields; and electromagnetic radiation from low frequency fields, radio frequencies, visible light, ultraviolet light, to ionizing radiation. Since many of these physical factors most naturally interacts with sensory functions, the text often focuses on interactions seen as sensory and nervous system alterations in both animals and humans. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Exposures to physical factors and chemicals that are not primarily related to occupational exposure, for example, the multitude of drugs that can interact with sunlight, are considered as being a general toxicological problem rather than a specific occupational toxicological issue. Readers interested in such interactions are therefore referred to the pharmacological literature. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Mixed exposure; \u0000Risk assessment; \u0000Risk management; \u0000Frequency; \u0000Noise; \u0000Chemical agents; \u0000Medications; \u0000Interactions; \u0000Vibrations; \u0000Arsenic; \u0000Temperature; \u0000Dust; \u0000Particles; \u0000Electromagnetic radiation; \u0000Electrostatic fields; \u0000Ionizing radiation; \u0000Interactions; \u0000Smoking","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83015328","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Silica and Silica Compounds","authors":"R. Lemen, E. Bingham","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX011","url":null,"abstract":"The uses of silica and the potential health hazards for workers or others exposed to dust particles date back thousands of years and are documented. Hippocrates and Pliny both mentioned silica's ability to cause disease and Pliny even described miners who used forms of respiratory protection. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The first study of silicosis, in the time of the industrial revolution, was that of Johnstone in 1796 who noted the high mortality of needlepointers at Redditch, England. By 1918, English workers received compensation for disability as a result of silicosis. Silicosis is a pneumoconiosis, but the terms must not be used synonymously. Silicosis, of all the pneumoconioses, has probably claimed the largest number of victims, either alone or in combination with tuberculosis, a condition frequently associated with silicosis. Betts gave the first description of acute silicosis in the United States. In 1932, the American Public Health Association (APHA) developed the definition for the fibrotic lung disease silicosis as \u0000 \u0000 \u0000A disease due to breathing air containing silica (SiO2), characterized anatomically by generalized fibrotic changes and the development of miliary nodulations in both lungs, and clinically by shortness of breath, decreased chest expansion, lessened capacity for work, absence of fever, increased susceptibility to tuberculosis (some or all of which symptoms may be present) and by characteristic X-ray findings.”. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000In 1917, Dr. Alice Hamilton described the life of stonecutters in the Barre, Vermont area of the United States. Later the United States Public Health Service studied these workers and issued a report giving preventive measures to combat silicotuberculosis and silicosis resulting from the inhalation of silica-containing dusts for Barre workers and also for other exposed workers. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Silica is a natural mineral composed of silicon dioxide, which occurs in either the crystalline or amorphous form. Silica makes up 21% of the earth's crust and is the most common of all chemical compounds. Pure silicon dioxide crystals are found naturally in three polymorphic forms: quartz, the most common; tridymite; and cristobalite. Each of the three is important to human health and make up the crystalline form of silica. Both tridymite and cristobalite appear more fibrogenic than quartz. Silicon dioxide is an acidic oxide, which is practically insoluble in water, but can be attacked by hydrogen fluoride. The amorphous form of silicon dioxide, also called vitreous silica, does not pose a significant threat to human health because it has not been associated with pneumoconiosis. In the few reports that have claimed an association between amorphous silica and disease, the truly amorphous nature of the material has been in doubt. Therefore, for the purposes of this discussion, the review and comments relate to quartz (the most common silicate), which is sometimes called free silica. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Human exposures to silica were encountered from the fir","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"76447975","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Phosphorus, Selenium, Tellurium, and Sulfur","authors":"E. Bingham","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX044","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX044","url":null,"abstract":"Phosphorus and sulfur are elements 15 and 16 in the periodic chart and selenium and tellurium are in the same group as sulfur. Sulfur was not covered in the persons edition, but they have been added in this edition because of the importance of sulfur compounds. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Elemental phosphorous is produced as a by-product or intermediate in the production of phosphate fertilizer. Environmental contamination with phosphorus results from its manufacture into phosphorus compounds and during the transport and use of these compounds. In the manufacturing process, phosphate rock containing the mineral apatite (tricalcium phosphate) is heated, and elementary phosphorus is liberated as a vapor. Phosphorus is used to manufacture explosives, incendiaries, smoke bombs, chemicals, rodenticides, phosphor bronze, and fertilizer. The use of phosphate fertilizers results in increased nutrients in fresh water and is a major environmental pollution problem. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Phosphorus exists in several allotropic forms: white (or yellow), red, and black (or violet). The last is of no industrial importance. Elemental yellow phosphorus extracted from bone was used to make “strike-anywhere” matches. In 1845, the occupational disease “phossy jaw,” a jaw bone necrosis, was recognized in workers who manufactured such matches. A prohibitive tax imposed in 1912 on matches made from yellow phosphorus led to the use of less toxic materials, red phosphorus and phosphorus sesquisulfide. The United States appears to have lagged behind European countries in that signatories of the Berne Convention of 1906 agreed not to manufacture or import matches made with yellow phosphorus. Occasional injuries continued to result from using yellow phosphorus to manufacture fireworks until 1926, when an agreement was reached to discontinue using yellow phosphorus for this purpose. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The world production of elemental phosphorus exceeds 1,000,000 metric tons. It is manufactured either in electric or blast furnaces. Both depend on silica as a flux for the calcium present in the phosphate rock. Nearly all of the phosphorus produced is converted into phosphoric acid or other phosphorus compounds. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Red phosphorus does not ignite spontaneously but may be ignited by friction, static electricity, heating, or oxidizing agents. Handling it in an aqueous solution helps prevent fires. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Phosphorus (white-yellow) can be absorbed through the skin, respiratory tract, and gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Experimental investigations in rats show the highest retention 5 days after oral administration in the liver, skeletal muscle, GI tract, blood, and kidney. Phosphorus is converted to phosphates in the body. Urinary excretion, the chief mode of elimination, is largely as organic and inorganic phosphates. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Selenium (Se), a nonmetallic element of the sulfur group, is widely distributed in nature. It is obtained along with tellurium as a by-product of metal or refining, chiefly from copper. About sixteen tons ","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"81237490","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}