{"title":"Global glacier mass change in 2025","authors":"The WGMS Network","doi":"10.1038/s43017-026-00777-z","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-026-00777-z","url":null,"abstract":"Glaciers lost 408 ± 132 Gt of mass during the hydrological year 2025, equivalent to 1.1 ± 0.4 mm sea-level rise. Since 1975, glacier mass loss has totalled 9,583 ± 1,211 Gt, equivalent to 26.4 ± 3.3 mm of sea-level rise, with six of the highest mass-loss years on record occurring in the past seven years.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"7 4","pages":"213-215"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147669051","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Nazhakaiti Anniwaer, Dan Zhu, Yanchen Gui, Chris Huntingford, Ranga B. Myneni, Shilong Piao
{"title":"Vegetation greenness in 2025","authors":"Nazhakaiti Anniwaer, Dan Zhu, Yanchen Gui, Chris Huntingford, Ranga B. Myneni, Shilong Piao","doi":"10.1038/s43017-026-00776-0","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-026-00776-0","url":null,"abstract":"Global mean vegetation greenness reached a record high in the year 2025, extending the multi-decadal upward trend. A total of 68.2% of vegetated land surfaces experienced greening, particularly in grasslands and croplands in the Southern Hemisphere and in northern mid-latitudes.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"7 4","pages":"209-212"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147669043","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Senliang Bao, Yuying Pan, Yuanlong Li, Huizan Wang, Juan Du, Lijing Cheng
{"title":"Ocean heat content in 2025","authors":"Senliang Bao, Yuying Pan, Yuanlong Li, Huizan Wang, Juan Du, Lijing Cheng","doi":"10.1038/s43017-026-00775-1","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-026-00775-1","url":null,"abstract":"As of 2025, the global full-depth ocean heat content (OHC) has risen by 481 ± 48 ZJ since 1960, with a pronounced increase of 24 ± 6 ZJ from 2024 to 2025. The highest elevations in OHC were measured in the Southern and Pacific Oceans.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"7 4","pages":"206-208"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-03-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147669046","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Zhanhong Ma, Lijing Cheng, Suzana J. Camargo, Kevin E. Trenberth, I. I. Lin, Gregory R. Foltz, Daniel R. Chavas, Deyuan Zhang, Elizabeth A. Ritchie, Jianfang Fei, Claudia Pasquero, Kevin J. E. Walsh, Zhemin Tan, Ryan L. Sriver, Hexin Ye, Lei Zhou
{"title":"Interactions of tropical cyclones with global energy and water cycles","authors":"Zhanhong Ma, Lijing Cheng, Suzana J. Camargo, Kevin E. Trenberth, I. I. Lin, Gregory R. Foltz, Daniel R. Chavas, Deyuan Zhang, Elizabeth A. Ritchie, Jianfang Fei, Claudia Pasquero, Kevin J. E. Walsh, Zhemin Tan, Ryan L. Sriver, Hexin Ye, Lei Zhou","doi":"10.1038/s43017-026-00770-6","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-026-00770-6","url":null,"abstract":"Tropical cyclones (TCs) are powerful weather phenomena that substantially alter Earth’s energy and water budgets. In this Review, we discuss the interactions of TCs with global energy and water cycles across various spatial and temporal scales. TCs annually extract a substantial amount of heat (0.17–0.25 PW) and water (1.9–2.8 × 1015 kg yr−1) from the ocean, and account for 8–17% of tropical precipitation. In the days (up to 1 month) after a TC, the generated Rossby wave trains can affect the development of subsequent TCs. Similarly, cold wakes left at the ocean surface modulate subsequent TC activity and regional winds, clouds, rainfall and radiation. The cumulative effects of TCs can have long-term (over 1 month) effects on global ocean heat uptake (annual mean 0.13–1.4 PW), ocean circulation and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation. Anthropogenic warming is likely to alter TC intensity, track and frequency, and the associated precipitation; however, projections of the future impacts of TCs on energy and water transport remain uncertain. Better quantifications of energy and water flows during and after TC events are needed to improve model representation of TC processes, their evolving role in a changing climate, and estimates of future risks. Tropical cyclones (TCs) transport a substantial amount of energy and water, affecting the atmosphere and oceans. This Review outlines the immediate, short-term and long-term effects of TCs and the potential impacts of anthropogenic climate change.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"7 4","pages":"216-234"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-03-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147669045","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Jessica Jewell, Aleh Cherp, Frank W. Geels, Masahiro Suzuki, Lola Nacke, Jale Tosun, Senjuty Bhowmik, Tsimafei Kazlou, Avi Jakhmola, Vadim Vinichenko
{"title":"Policy-driven growth of technologies to accelerate climate action","authors":"Jessica Jewell, Aleh Cherp, Frank W. Geels, Masahiro Suzuki, Lola Nacke, Jale Tosun, Senjuty Bhowmik, Tsimafei Kazlou, Avi Jakhmola, Vadim Vinichenko","doi":"10.1038/s43017-026-00765-3","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-026-00765-3","url":null,"abstract":"More than 70% of climate policies target low-carbon technologies, with hopes that policy support will trigger tipping points and self-reinforcing growth. In practice, however, trajectories of policy-driven technologies remain difficult to explain and anticipate because their growth is nonlinear and often constrained by backlash, policy reversals and systemic barriers. In this Perspective, we develop a framework to explain, diagnose, and anticipate the growth of policy-driven technologies through four phases. In the formative phase, rapid innovation, uncertainties and frequent failures lead to erratic growth; in the accelerating growth phase, increasing economic and political returns progressively increase deployment speed; in the steady growth phase, emerging barriers dampen acceleration leading to a pattern in which growth pulsates around its peak; and in the slowdown phase, barriers stall growth and technology reaches its limits. Surprisingly, the scale and complexity of supporting policies do not necessarily diminish as technologies mature. Effective acceleration requires phase-specific policies to support technical and commercial viability in the formative phase, amplify increasing returns in the accelerating growth phase, manage barriers in the steady growth phase, and withdraw or reinvigorate support during the slowdown phase. Further advancing this phase-aware understanding of the co-evolution of policy and technology is essential for improving climate policy design and for developing more realistic technology projections and climate mitigation scenarios. Accelerating the growth of low-carbon technologies is important for achieving climate targets and is the focus of many policies. This Perspective outlines four phases in the growth of policy-driven technologies and the policy requirements to achieve acceleration in each phase.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"7 4","pages":"235-252"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-03-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147669049","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Marcus Schiedung, Kirsty J. Harrington, Xavier Dupla, Benjamin Möller, Ennio Facq, Tim Sweere, Axel Don, Robert G. Hilton, Sebastian Doetterl, Jordon D. Hemingway
{"title":"Uncertainties of enhanced rock weathering for climate-change mitigation","authors":"Marcus Schiedung, Kirsty J. Harrington, Xavier Dupla, Benjamin Möller, Ennio Facq, Tim Sweere, Axel Don, Robert G. Hilton, Sebastian Doetterl, Jordon D. Hemingway","doi":"10.1038/s43017-026-00761-7","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-026-00761-7","url":null,"abstract":"Enhanced rock weathering (ERW) on agricultural soils is under consideration as a long-term carbon dioxide removal (CDR) strategy. In this Perspective, we evaluate uncertainties related to ERW around feedstock availability, plant–soil system impacts, CDR efficiency along the land–ocean continuum and socio-economic considerations. The composition of (ultra)mafic rocks places constraints on the availability of suitable feedstock when considering their potential for CDR and toxic element contents. For ERW application at scale, dedicated mining for suitable feedstock seems unavoidable. ERW can positively and negatively affect soil structure, hydrology, and overall carbon and nutrient cycles, and so optimal ERW will require site-specific assessment of effective CDR and mitigation of potential negative impacts. Additionally, the fate of weathering products along the land–ocean continuum in rivers remains poorly constrained, which is a challenge for verifying successful CDR. The socio-economic effects and constraints of ERW regarding financing and risk responsibility are also uncertain. Ultimately, large-scale ERW deployment seems limited by substantial challenges throughout its application, from its initial set-up to final CDR. Future research prioritizing site-specific assessments, long-term monitoring along the land–ocean continuum, and system modelling to constrain uncertainties and address socio-economic factors is needed to ensure that ERW deployment is effective, equitable, and sustainable. Enhanced rock weathering (ERW) is a carbon dioxide removal (CDR) strategy that converts atmospheric CO2 to stable carbonates by applying minerals to agricultural land. This Perspective discusses the potential difficulties in scaling ERW, covering feedstock availability, impacts on soil–plant systems, uncertainties around CDR efficiency along the land–ocean continuum and socio-economic challenges.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"7 4","pages":"253-266"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-02-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147669052","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Christopher E. Cornwall, Orlando Timmerman, Andreas Andersson, Denisa M. Berbece, Oscar Branson, Steeve Comeau, Travis A. Courtney, Simon D. Donner, Ian Enochs, Ben P. Harvey, Ashtyn L. Isaak, Holly E. Koch, Cheryl A. Logan, Chris T. Perry, Verena Schoepf, Lauren T. Toth, Alice Webb
{"title":"Persistence of coral reef structures into the twenty-first century","authors":"Christopher E. Cornwall, Orlando Timmerman, Andreas Andersson, Denisa M. Berbece, Oscar Branson, Steeve Comeau, Travis A. Courtney, Simon D. Donner, Ian Enochs, Ben P. Harvey, Ashtyn L. Isaak, Holly E. Koch, Cheryl A. Logan, Chris T. Perry, Verena Schoepf, Lauren T. Toth, Alice Webb","doi":"10.1038/s43017-026-00764-4","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-026-00764-4","url":null,"abstract":"Coral reefs provide important socioecological services but are vulnerable to climate change, which shifts the balance between the production and erosion of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). In this Review, we summarize understanding of reef accretion, describe the mechanisms of carbonate production and erosion, and consider the effects of future ocean warming and acidification on key reef-building and eroding taxa. The combined stressors of climate change substantially reduce net carbonate production, with a more pronounced effect on calcifying algae than corals. However, declining coral cover driven by marine heatwaves and mass bleaching will probably be the dominant determinant of future reef carbonate budgets, and thus only reefs with thermally adapted populations are predicted to maintain the ability to sustain positive CaCO3 production under climate change, even if calcareous algal cover increases. As carbonate budgets become net negative in the future, the longevity of pre-existing reef frameworks remains unknown and understudied owing to the timescales required to meaningfully assess framework removal rates. Improving estimates of the rates of biologically driven framework loss and chemical dissolution will also be important in better predicting future reef persistence. Key knowledge gaps exist in understanding the effects of deoxygenation on coral reefs, as well as the influence of climate change on understudied sediment-producing taxa such as foraminifera and tropical molluscs. Carbonate production and accretion is negatively affected by ocean warming and acidification, threatening coral reef persistence. This Review synthesizes understanding of environmental impacts on reefs, highlighting the dominant role of heatwaves in reef decline and the importance of thermal adaption for future reef persistence.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"7 3","pages":"151-161"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-02-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147570418","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Harold Lovell, Douglas I. Benn, Hester Jiskoot, Chris R. Stokes, Gwenn E. Flowers, Gregoire Guillet, Erik Schytt Mannerfelt, Daniel Falaschi, Andreas Kääb, Owen King, Ívar Örn Benediktsson, Rakesh Bhambri, Mingyang Lv (, ), Sher Muhammad, Adrian Luckman
{"title":"Glacier surging and surge-related hazards in a changing climate","authors":"Harold Lovell, Douglas I. Benn, Hester Jiskoot, Chris R. Stokes, Gwenn E. Flowers, Gregoire Guillet, Erik Schytt Mannerfelt, Daniel Falaschi, Andreas Kääb, Owen King, Ívar Örn Benediktsson, Rakesh Bhambri, Mingyang Lv \u0000 (, ), Sher Muhammad, Adrian Luckman","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00757-9","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00757-9","url":null,"abstract":"Glacier surges are ice flow instabilities characterized by periods of acceleration, during which mass is rapidly transferred from high to low elevations and the glacier front often advances. In this Review, we outline global trends in glacier surging and the influence of climate on the distribution and behaviour of surge-type glaciers and surge-related hazards. Glaciers exhibit diverse surging behaviours and typically recur at intervals that range from 5 years to over 100 years, with all surges largely driven by a reduction in basal friction. Most of the ~3,100 surge-type glaciers identified globally are clustered in the Arctic and Subarctic (48.3%) and High Mountain Asia (50.5%), where climate conditions are conducive to the development of surge instabilities, and there is emerging evidence that climate warming is changing surge behaviour. At least 81 surge-type glaciers globally have caused hazards such as ice-dammed glacial lake outburst floods, which can lead to infrastructure damage and loss of life. Future research should acquire spatiotemporally high-resolution remote-sensing data and direct observations of basal processes during all stages of surges, develop numerical models to better capture surge mechanisms and diversity, and project the impact of future climate warming on surge-type glacier behaviour and distribution. Glacier surges are rapid ice flow acceleration and mass transport events, which can threaten nearby communities, infrastructure and habitats. This Review discusses the global distribution, behaviour and associated hazards of glaciers that are prone to surging and how these are being affected by climate change.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"7 3","pages":"162-180"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-02-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147570472","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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