{"title":"Recent Developments in X-Ray Astronomy","authors":"L. Golub","doi":"10.1364/pxrayms.1994.tuc.1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1364/pxrayms.1994.tuc.1","url":null,"abstract":"We focus on aspects of the past, present and future of multilayer optics in Solar astrophysics. Space flights, mostly on sounding rockets, will be discussed and some future satellites which use multilayers for imaging and/or spectrocopy will be presented.","PeriodicalId":164371,"journal":{"name":"Physics of X-Ray Multilayer Structures","volume":"112 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126708889","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
H. Voorma, E. Louis, N. Koster, F. Bijkerk, M. J. V. Wiel
{"title":"Characterisation of Mo/Si multilayers with small angle reflectivity measurements.","authors":"H. Voorma, E. Louis, N. Koster, F. Bijkerk, M. J. V. Wiel","doi":"10.1364/pxrayms.1994.wc.6","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1364/pxrayms.1994.wc.6","url":null,"abstract":"We developed an optical system for soft x-ray projection lithography [1] with a laser plasma x-ray source. In the optical system Mo/Si multilayer mirrors are used for near normal incidence reflectivity. High reflectivity of each multilayer is mandatory because in the optical system four reflecting surfaces are used. A reliable tool for characterisation of multilayers is needed in the process of determining the optimum parameters for the production of high reflectivity multilayer mirrors. Therefore we developed software to analyse the hard x-ray reflectivity measurements. With this software, that is based on a fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the Bragg peaks, a distinction between interface-roughness and layer-thickness errors can be made. These two parameters have considerable influence on the near normal incidence reflectivity. Furthermore, reflectivity measurements are done at various wavelengths to find the material densities. These are also important parameters for the near normal incidence reflectivity. This article will restrict itself to the analysis Mo/Si multilayers deposited at 36°C and 215°C with or without ion etching. These multilayers are made for a wavelength of 13.5 nm at normal incidence.","PeriodicalId":164371,"journal":{"name":"Physics of X-Ray Multilayer Structures","volume":"25 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126037406","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Roughness Correlations in Si/Mo Multilayers","authors":"J. Slaughter, G. D. Stearns, C. Falco","doi":"10.1364/pxrayms.1994.mc.2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1364/pxrayms.1994.mc.2","url":null,"abstract":"Low-angle x-ray diffraction with hard x-rays is a standard technique for characterization of interface quality in multilayers. Although the specular reflectivity, measured by a θ-2θ scan, is very sensitive to interface roughness, it reveals little about the nature of the roughness. Fortunately, more information can be obtained from an analysis of the non-specular scattering of the x-rays. The theory of non-specular scattering of x-rays from multilayers only recently has been developed to a level which allows for comparison with experiment.1,2,3,4,5 A key feature of non-specular scattering from multilayers, explained clearly in reference 3, is that correlated roughness should give rise to resonant scattering in particular non-specular directions. Such a resonant intensity has been observed experimentally.2,6,7,8 It is clear from the theories referenced above that correlated roughness can account for the non-specular features we and others have observed. Having an appropriate theory now gives us the possibility to use non-specular measurements to compliment the standard specular characterization techniques.","PeriodicalId":164371,"journal":{"name":"Physics of X-Ray Multilayer Structures","volume":"159 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124457804","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
F. Christensen, A. Homstrup, K. Joensen, S. Abdali, P. Høghøj, P. Slane, S. Romaine
{"title":"High resolution X-ray scatter studies from single films and multilayers","authors":"F. Christensen, A. Homstrup, K. Joensen, S. Abdali, P. Høghøj, P. Slane, S. Romaine","doi":"10.1364/pxrayms.1994.tub.2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1364/pxrayms.1994.tub.2","url":null,"abstract":"Metal coatings such as Au1 and Ir2 will be used as the reflecting surface in current X-ray telescope programs. Likewise, multilayers have been used3 in normal incidence soft X-ray telescopes and are suggested for future grazing incidence telescope projects both near 6-7 keV and in the hard X-ray regime4 (10-100 keV). The accurate evaluation of the imaging behaviour of telescopes based on these structures requires characterizing the surface/interface structure on lengthscales from Ångstrøms to mm's. In this paper we present high resolution X-ray scattering data from such surfaces obtained at Cu-Kα1 (8.048 keV), Fe-Kα1 (6.404 keV) and Al-Kα (1.487 keV). We demonstrate that the combination of low, high and ultrahigh resolution scatter measurements can be performed which is capable of detecting scattering from roughness over lenghtscales from a few thousand Å to ~10 mm. The sensitivity of these measurements allow one to detect scattering from roughness having r.m.s. roughness values as small as a few Å in the entire lenghtscale range listed above. The diffuse intensity is mapped completely in reciprocal space for the multilayer structures and the influence of the resolution function is accurately evaluated. The data have been analyzed using the most recent theoretical expressions for the diffuse X-ray scatter from single films and multilayers5.","PeriodicalId":164371,"journal":{"name":"Physics of X-Ray Multilayer Structures","volume":"107 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124231138","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Roughness Evolution in Films and Multilayer Structures","authors":"M. Lagally","doi":"10.1364/pxrayms.1992.tua1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1364/pxrayms.1992.tua1","url":null,"abstract":"Structures fabricated from multiple layers of very thin films make up an increasing component of our high-technology base in electronics, photonics, and x-ray optics. In particular, in x-ray optics, quite dissimilar materials are combined to create what are effectively one-dimensional diffraction gratings, in which the layers must have indices of refraction that are as different as possible. But that feature alone is not enough. The interfaces between the different layers affect the quality of the structure as an x-ray reflector, bringing into consideration questions of crystal growth and the kinetic and thermodynamic mechanisms of growth. This paper provides an overview of the most important kinetic mechanisms that control growth and illustrates then with scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and diffraction measurements.","PeriodicalId":164371,"journal":{"name":"Physics of X-Ray Multilayer Structures","volume":"31 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122509136","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Stress Characteristics in Periodic Multilayer Structures for X-Ray Optics","authors":"T. Nguyen, Xiang Lu, J. Underwood","doi":"10.1364/pxrayms.1994.wa.3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1364/pxrayms.1994.wa.3","url":null,"abstract":"Sputtered x-ray multilayers usually exhibit the presence of intrinsic stress in the structures. Stress in multilayer mirrors are undesirable in many x-ray optical applications where flat mirrors, or precise control of curved mirrors, are designed. Controlling of the stress in these multilayers requires understanding of stress characteristics in multilayers and thin films.","PeriodicalId":164371,"journal":{"name":"Physics of X-Ray Multilayer Structures","volume":"50 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123927330","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
R. Schlatmann, A. Keppel, S. Bultman, J. Verhoeven
{"title":"Gradient index multilayers for X-ray reflection","authors":"R. Schlatmann, A. Keppel, S. Bultman, J. Verhoeven","doi":"10.1364/pxrayms.1994.tha.6","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1364/pxrayms.1994.tha.6","url":null,"abstract":"Energetic ions penetrating a solid lose their energy by nuclear interaction with one or more target atoms as well as by electronic excitation of the target atoms. The energy loss by nuclear interaction can be described in the classical ballistic way. Target atoms, put into motion by a primary collision, can exchange momentum with surrounding target atoms. This results in implantation of primary ions and damage in the target structure. A part of the momentum exchange is reversed in the direction of the target surface. This can give rise to the release of surface atoms, which is known as sputtering. Momentum transfer at an interface of two different materials will give rise to intermixing as demonstrated by van der Weg1). Fundamental research2) revealed that ion beam mixing could not only be explained by ballistic effects, but that also thermodynamic and chemical effects play a role. These effects are expected to take place in the end of a cascade formation, when the average energy is smaller than 1 eV. Further experiments have shown the importance of radiation enhanced diffusion, which shows up as a temperature dependent effect for a temperature higher than a critical value. The physics of this effect is based on vacancy enhanced diffusion.","PeriodicalId":164371,"journal":{"name":"Physics of X-Ray Multilayer Structures","volume":"88 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123953110","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
K. Gorshkov, I. Nefedov, A. Fraerman, I. .. Shereshevsky
{"title":"Nonlinear stage of the decomposition in multilayer structures.","authors":"K. Gorshkov, I. Nefedov, A. Fraerman, I. .. Shereshevsky","doi":"10.1364/pxrayms.1994.wc.4","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1364/pxrayms.1994.wc.4","url":null,"abstract":"Interdiffusion in multilayer structures is a subject of much current interest [1]. Special interest is interdiffusion in stratifying solid solution.","PeriodicalId":164371,"journal":{"name":"Physics of X-Ray Multilayer Structures","volume":"15 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127898830","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Trends in the X-Ray Diffraction of Multilayers","authors":"C. Tarrio, R. Deslattes, A. Caticha, J. Pedulla","doi":"10.1364/pxrayms.1994.tua.4","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1364/pxrayms.1994.tua.4","url":null,"abstract":"Understanding the morphology of multilayer structures (MLS's) is an important step toward the preparation of high-quality multilayer mirrors for use in the extreme ultraviolet. To gain information about the structure, the x-ray reflectivity is measured at grazing angles. These data are then analyzed using any of a number of models to gain information about such characteristics as d spacing, spacing uniformity, heavy element fill factor (Γ), and diffusion boundary widths. Several models have been used with varying degrees of success to describe the x-ray diffraction of multilayers. The matrix method, in which the reflectivity is explicitly calculated at each interface, is exact for abrupt interfaces, but to include diffusion it is necessary to divide each boundary into many layers, which slows the calculations considerably. Traditional x-ray diffraction models allow for rapid calculations, but make approximations that are not generally applicable to multilayers. The kinematical model, in which only one reflection is allowed within the sample, is only accurate for low reflectivities, and thus is not valid near the Bragg peaks of the MLS. The dynamical model allows for multiple reflections, but is not accurate away from Bragg peaks at grazing incidence.","PeriodicalId":164371,"journal":{"name":"Physics of X-Ray Multilayer Structures","volume":"30 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121296225","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
C. Volkert, D. Windt, W. Waskiewicz, J. A. Liddle, H. Huggins
{"title":"Stress in Multilayers and Thin Films","authors":"C. Volkert, D. Windt, W. Waskiewicz, J. A. Liddle, H. Huggins","doi":"10.1364/pxrayms.1994.wa.2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1364/pxrayms.1994.wa.2","url":null,"abstract":"Thin films and multilayers are typically under stresses that are large enough to deform substrate surfaces by up to several nanometers. The origins of these stresses and measurement techniques will be discussed.","PeriodicalId":164371,"journal":{"name":"Physics of X-Ray Multilayer Structures","volume":"31 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125894711","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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