International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience最新文献

{"title":"A Case Report and a Review of TRAPPC4-Related TRAPPopathy","authors":"Anil Kumar,&nbsp;Ajay Kumar,&nbsp;Arvinder Wander,&nbsp;Anjana Munshi","doi":"10.1002/jdn.70167","DOIUrl":"10.1002/jdn.70167","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Neurodevelopmental disorder with spasticity, epilepsy and brain atrophy (NEDESBA) is a rare autosomal recessive condition, first described in 2020. It has been associated with biallelic pathogenic variants in the Trafficking Protein Particle Complex Subunit 4 (TRAPPC4) gene. This disorder belongs to the expanding group of TRAPPopathies, caused by mutations in genes encoding components of the transport protein particle (TRAPP) complex, which are essential for intracellular trafficking, autophagy and dendritic spine morphogenesis. Variants in these genes typically result in overlapping clinical features, including microcephaly, early-onset epilepsy, intellectual disability, neurodevelopmental regression, spasticity and abnormal brain MRI findings. Here, we report a 13-month-old affected male born to consanguineous parents, presenting with epileptic spasms and progressive neurodevelopmental delay. Importantly, proband also exhibits hair loss and skin rashes in early infancy. Initial metabolic screening suggested biotinidase deficiency, based on low biotin levels (0.6 nmol/min/mL; normal &gt; 5) and overlapping clinical symptoms. However, confirmatory biochemical and enzymatic studies ruled out classic biotinidase deficiency. Whole exome sequencing revealed a homozygous splice-site variant (c.454+3A&gt;G) in the TRAPPC4 gene, confirming the diagnosis of NEDESBA. This variant has been reported in multiple previous reports, mainly born out of consanguineous marriages. The phenotypic overlap between metabolic and genetic neurodevelopmental disorders in these cases emphasizes the critical role of early molecular testing in achieving a precise diagnosis.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":13914,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience","volume":"86 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148664012","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mechanisms, Biomarkers and Therapeutic Implications of Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's Disease.","authors":"Shaunt Papelian","doi":"10.1002/jdn.70168","DOIUrl":"10.1002/jdn.70168","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Alzheimer's disease (AD) represents the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder worldwide, affecting millions of individuals and imposing substantial socioeconomic burdens. While traditional research has focused on amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles as primary pathological hallmarks, mounting evidence implicates neuroinflammation as a critical third pillar in AD pathogenesis. This review critically evaluates current understanding of neuroinflammatory mechanisms in AD, examining the complex interplay between cellular mediators, molecular pathways and environmental triggers across a temporal disease-stage framework. We explore the dual and stage-dependent roles of microglia and astrocytes, expand discussion of blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction and peripheral immune infiltration as underappreciated pathogenic contributors, and integrate emerging evidence linking neuroinflammation specifically to tau pathology and its stereotyped propagation through the brain. Diagnostic biomarkers, including translocator protein-positron emission tomography (TSPO-PET) and plasma glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), are evaluated with explicit attention to clinical utility, technical limitations, and their relationship to established AD biomarkers. Therapeutic strategies are critically assessed with careful distinction between preclinical proof-of-concept data and available clinical evidence, and key translational challenges are highlighted throughout. The review emphasizes the need for stage-appropriate intervention windows, patient stratification by neuroinflammatory endotype, and biologically rational combination strategies. Understanding neuroinflammation's temporal and spatial dynamics offers promising but as yet insufficiently realized avenues for early intervention and disease modification in AD.</p>","PeriodicalId":13914,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience","volume":"86 5","pages":"e70168"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13446127/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148678487","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Novel Compound Heterozygous Variants in SLC13A3 Associated With ARLIAK: A Case Report and Review of the Literature.","authors":"Eyyup Uctepe, Melike Ersoy, Fatma Nisa Esen, Damlanur Sakar, Figen Palabiyik, Ahmet Yeşilyurt","doi":"10.1002/jdn.70174","DOIUrl":"10.1002/jdn.70174","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>SLC13A3 pathogenic variants are associated with acute reversible leukoencephalopathy and α-ketoglutarate accumulation (ARLIAK), a rare neurological disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of encephalopathy and transient white matter abnormalities. Pathogenic variants reported so far include missense, nonsense and small deletion variants, highlighting substantial allelic heterogeneity. We describe a patient presenting with multiple episodes of acute encephalopathy, elevated urinary α-ketoglutarate and reversible white matter lesions on MRI, consistent with SLC13A3-related ARLIAK. Genetic analysis identified novel compound heterozygous variants: a missense variant (p.Leu46Pro) in a highly conserved region and a larger deletion encompassing exons 2-3. Our findings indicate that conventional sequencing alone may miss larger deletions, suggesting the need for copy number analysis as part of the diagnostic protocol for suspected ARLIAK cases. The elevated urinary α-ketoglutarate in our patient supports its potential as a noninvasive biomarker. MRI findings demonstrated typical transient and reversible white matter abnormalities, aligning with previously reported cases. This study expands the molecular and phenotypic spectrum of SLC13A3-related ARLIAK and underscores the importance of combining sequencing with copy number analysis for accurate diagnosis. The identification of novel variants contributes to a better understanding of the disease mechanism and suggests a broader allelic heterogeneity than previously recognized.</p>","PeriodicalId":13914,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience","volume":"86 5","pages":"e70174"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13469706/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148721067","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Data-Driven Approaches for Autism Detection: A Comprehensive Review of Machine Learning Algorithms and Datasets.","authors":"Anupama N, Chandrashekar M Patil","doi":"10.1002/jdn.70172","DOIUrl":"10.1002/jdn.70172","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition with a broad spectrum of symptoms, which makes timely and accurate diagnosis challenging. The development of machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) has created opportunities for automated ASD screening and detection. This systematic review focuses on the analyses of 59 peer-reviewed studies on unimodal and multimodal approaches to ASD detection that were published between 2019 and 2025. The results demonstrated that classical ML algorithms (such as logistic regression [LR], support vector machines [SVM] and random forests [RF]) and DL models (convolutional neural networks [CNN], recurrent neural networks (RNN) and transformers) were used to assess the accuracy of the diagnosis for a variety of data modalities ranging from behavioural measures to neuroimaging, electroencephalography (EEG), eye tracking and speech, with accuracy from 68% to 99%. A careful examination of these studies, however, shows that they share certain common flaws, including small sample size, demographic bias, overfitting and absence of external validation. Hybrid multimodal frameworks have been shown to yield consistent performance improvements over unimodal frameworks, with accuracies of 95%-99% achieved through attention, graph-based learning and hybrid fusion approaches. This review highlights four major points: (1) a critical review of dataset ethics and validity, even for non-clinical facial image datasets; (2) an architectural comparison of multimodal fusion strategies (early fusion, late fusion and hybrid fusion) focusing on computational complexity and clinical applicability; (3) a quantitative summarization of the performance trends by modalities and sample size; and (4) a structured review of indicators of reproducibility and regulatory hurdles for clinical translation. This review suggests the need to develop large, well-balanced datasets, the application of explainable AI (XAI) techniques, standardization (e.g., brain imaging data structure [BIDS]) and regulatory guidelines for facilitating the clinical translation of ASD detection systems.</p>","PeriodicalId":13914,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience","volume":"86 5","pages":"e70172"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13476672/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148766492","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Management of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): The Role of Traditional Chinese Medicine.","authors":"Xiaowen Yang, Xuan Liu, Meiao Tan","doi":"10.1002/jdn.70169","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/jdn.70169","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by inattention, hyperactivity and impulsive behaviour, which impair patient functioning. There is a growing trend among parents to use complementary and alternative medicines alongside conventional treatments to manage their children's ADHD symptoms. The aim of this review is to elucidate the therapeutic methods of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) by discussing their scientifically established mechanisms of action, effectiveness and side effects, thereby creating a comparative understanding relative to current pharmaceutical treatments for ADHD. Psychostimulants are the first-choice pharmacological treatment; they are effective in alleviating symptoms but are often associated with side effects. These issues have prompted interest in complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) approaches. TCM offers various methods for managing ADHD. This review synthesizes current evidence on the TCM perspective regarding ADHD aetiology and its main therapeutic options, including herbal treatments, acupuncture, Tai Chi and paediatric tuina, along with their proposed neurobiological mechanisms. The clinical safety and efficacy of these treatments were evaluated based on randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and meta-analyses. These findings demonstrate that TCM interventions significantly reduce core ADHD symptoms, often with acceptable safety profiles. This review concludes that TCM represents a valuable complementary approach; however, more high-quality research is needed to standardize treatments and facilitate their evidence-based integration into conventional psychiatric management and therapy.</p>","PeriodicalId":13914,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience","volume":"86 5","pages":"e70169"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13476670/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148759586","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Anxiety and Age, but Not OCD Diagnosis, Predict Infection-Preventive Behaviours in Adolescents During COVID-19.","authors":"Anıl Şafak Kaçar, Tuba Mutluer, Herdem Aslan Genç, İlyas Kaya, Yaşar Tanır, Fuat Balcı","doi":"10.1002/jdn.70166","DOIUrl":"10.1002/jdn.70166","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Purpose: </strong>To examine whether obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) diagnosis was associated with greater infection-preventive behaviour and altered inhibitory-control performance in adolescents during the early COVID-19 lockdown in Türkiye while considering the roles of age and anxiety.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Seventy-two adolescents aged 12-18 years, including 22 with OCD and 50 without OCD, completed a COVID-19 preventive behaviour questionnaire and the child and parent versions of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale. Participants also completed an online go/no-go task. Ordinary least squares models were used to test whether age, anxiety, OCD diagnosis and their interactions were associated with behavioural change and mean Go-trial reaction time.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The model predicting infection-preventive behavioural change was significant, F(7,64) = 2.54, p = 0.023, R² = 0.218. OCD diagnosis did not predict behavioural change. In contrast, younger age and higher anxiety were associated with greater increases in infection-preventive behaviour, and the age-by-anxiety interaction indicated that anxiety-related increases were more pronounced among younger adolescents. The model predicting mean Go-trial reaction time was also significant, F(7,58) = 3.07, p = 0.008, R² = 0.27. Adolescents with OCD showed slower Go-trial reaction times than comparison participants, and the diagnosis-by-age interaction suggested weaker age-related differences in response speed in the clinical group.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>During the early lockdown phase of COVID-19, developmental and affective factors were more closely associated with adolescents' infection-preventive behaviour than OCD diagnosis. In contrast, OCD diagnosis was more strongly associated with reduced response efficiency on the inhibitory-control task. These findings support the importance of considering developmental stage and anxiety, alongside diagnosis, in understanding adolescents' behavioural adaptation during public-health crises.</p>","PeriodicalId":13914,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience","volume":"86 5","pages":"e70166"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13437132/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148684422","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Serum Biomarkers of Neuroaxonal and Astroglial Damage in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Relationship With Symptom Severity, Behavioural Dimensions and Age.","authors":"Zeynep Nur Dedeoğlu, Necati Uzun, İbrahim Kılınç, Ahmet Osman Kılıç","doi":"10.1002/jdn.70173","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/jdn.70173","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Purpose: </strong>Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and the presence of restrictive, repetitive patterns of behaviour. Although its exact aetiology remains multifaceted and partially understood, recent clinical interest has shifted towards neurobiological substrates, specifically neuroaxonal and astroglial integrity. This study aims to compare serum levels of Neurofilament Light Chain (NfL), Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP), Tau and S100B between children with ASD and healthy controls, while investigating the influence of these biochemical variables on autism severity and behavioural manifestations.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>The study cohort consisted of 44 children (aged 24-72 months) diagnosed with ASD according to DSM-5-TR criteria and 40 age-matched healthy controls. Clinical assessments were conducted using the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS), the Aberrant Behaviour Checklist (ABC) and the Autism Behaviour Checklist. Serum concentrations of the targeted biomarkers were measured using the ELISA method from venous blood samples.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Serum NfL, Tau, GFAP and S100B concentrations did not differ significantly between children with ASD and healthy controls. Exploratory analyses suggested possible associations between selected biomarkers and clinical characteristics; however, these associations did not remain statistically significant after age adjustment and correction for multiple comparisons. Further studies using larger cohorts and ultrasensitive analytical platforms are needed to validate these preliminary findings.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>These findings indicate that serum NfL, Tau, GFAP and S100B did not differentiate children with ASD from healthy controls. Exploratory biomarker-clinical associations did not remain statistically significant after age adjustment and correction for multiple comparisons. Larger longitudinal studies using ultrasensitive analytical platforms are warranted.</p>","PeriodicalId":13914,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience","volume":"86 5","pages":"e70173"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13476659/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148758720","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Neurocognitive and Socio-Emotional Profile of Children with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome: Executive Functions, Social Processing Deficits and Clinical Implications.","authors":"Kalliopi Megari, Kremena D Genova","doi":"10.1002/jdn.70171","DOIUrl":"10.1002/jdn.70171","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The current comprehensive literature review delves into the executive functioning and the significant social and emotional challenges of a specific group: children diagnosed with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome (22q11DS). In 22q11DS, deficits in executive functions are, at least in part, a result of the deletion on chromosome 22. Nonetheless, the manifestation of the EF phenotype in 22q11DS is diverse and may be affected by specific risk factors that are more prevalent in this group. Consequently, 22q11DS provides an opportunity to examine how these factors influence executive function within the framework of a singular genetic basis. This review also indicates that children with 22q11DS exhibit impairments in inhibition and shifting, whereas updating may remain intact during childhood. It is also important to highlight that deficits in executive functions are observed in this group even when accounting for cognitive abilities, reinforcing the idea that executive function and intelligence are distinct constructs. Recent findings indicate that risk factors commonly recognized in the general population, like congenital heart defects or low socioeconomic status, might not influence executive functioning in the same manner in 22q11DS. While illustrating how research on the 22q11DS population can enhance our comprehension of executive function development, we underscore the relevant practical implications, pinpoint the existing gaps in the literature and emphasize the potential avenues for future inquiry.</p>","PeriodicalId":13914,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience","volume":"86 5","pages":"e70171"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13462335/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148712482","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Haematological Inflammatory Indices in Preschoolers With Developmental Language Disorder: The Role of the Systemic Inflammation Response Index.","authors":"Orhan Kocaman, Tayfun Kara","doi":"10.1002/jdn.70170","DOIUrl":"10.1002/jdn.70170","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>This study compared peripheral haematological inflammation indices obtained from complete blood count (CBC) parameters between preschoolers with developmental language disorder (DLD) and typically developing peers (TD) and examined the role of peripheral inflammatory processes in preschoolers with DLD.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>One hundred twenty-seven children (61 with DLD and 66 TD) aged 36-60 months were included in this hospital-based, retrospective, case-controlled study. Complete blood count parameters and the resulting indices were compared: Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), systemic immune-inflammation index (SII), and systemic inflammation response index (SIRI). Statistical analyses included group comparisons, multivariable logistic regression, and Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The DLD registered significantly lower lymphocyte, higher monocyte, and NLR, SII and SIRI values compared to the TD (p = 0.015, p < 0.001, p < 0.001, p = 0.007, p < 0.001, respectively). Analysis of covariance revealed that the groups had a significant main effect on monocytes, NLR, SII and SIRI levels and that this effect was independent of age and gender. At multivariable logistic regression, SIRI emerged as a significant independent predictor of DLD, alongside male gender and a lower paternal education level ((p = 0.002, p = 0.007, p = 0.009, respectively). ROC analysis showed that SIRI had discriminative ability for DLD (AUC = 0.765, p < 0.001).</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>The findings suggest that peripheral inflammatory processes, reflected by NLR, SII and particularly SIRI, may be associated with DLD in preschoolers. Although SIRI showed high specificity but low sensitivity, the present results provide preliminary evidence that it may represent a potential peripheral inflammation index associated with DLD.</p>","PeriodicalId":13914,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience","volume":"86 5","pages":"e70170"},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13461268/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148712490","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sexually Dimorphic Developmental Trajectories of Cortical and Subcortical Subfields in Early Childhood","authors":"Md Mamun Al-Amin,&nbsp;Mst. Shahnaj Pervin,&nbsp;A. H. M. Ruhul Quddus,&nbsp;Syed Zaheed Kamal","doi":"10.1002/jdn.70164","DOIUrl":"10.1002/jdn.70164","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Chronic socio-economic adversity is associated with altered neurodevelopment. However, its relation to sex-specific brain structure during early childhood remains incompletely understood. We examined structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from 79 children aged 6–7 years. These participants reside in conditions of socio-economic deprivation in Bangladesh. Using voxel-based morphometry, whole-brain parcellation and subfield segmentation, we quantified cortical, subcortical and cerebellar volumes. These measures characterize sex-dependent neuroanatomical variation within this cohort. Boys exhibited larger total intracranial volumes. Voxel-based analysis showed greater volumes across several subcortical regions in boys. These included the hippocampus, amygdala, putamen, caudate and hypothalamus. In contrast, girls demonstrated relatively greater brainstem volumes, including pons and medulla. These findings indicate sex-dependent variation in stress-sensitive limbic–thalamic and brainstem regions. This variation occurs during a critical developmental window in a socio-economically vulnerable cohort. Although the present design does not permit direct comparison across economic contexts, the results provide a detailed characterization of structural sexual dimorphism. This study provides valuable evidence from children exposed to chronic adversity. Furthermore, it contributes neuroimaging data from an under-represented population to models of early brain development.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":13914,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience","volume":"86 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148630257","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}