Inflammopharmacology最新文献

{"title":"Vitexin mitigates oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, pyroptosis and regulates small nucleolar RNA host gene 1/DNA methyltransferase 1/microRNA-495 axis in sepsis-associated acute lung injury.","authors":"Almaz Zaki, Mohd Mohsin, Salman Khan, Aman Khan, Shaniya Ahmad, Amit Verma, Shakir Ali, Tasneem Fatma, Mansoor Ali Syed","doi":"10.1007/s10787-024-01609-6","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10787-024-01609-6","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Aim of the study: </strong>This study examined vitexin's effect on sepsis-induced acute lung injury. We used network pharmacology and in vivo and in vitro experiments were performed to elucidate vitexin's role in preventing pyroptosis and regulating small nucleolar RNA host gene 1 (SNHG1)/DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1)/microRNA-495 (miR-495 axis.</p><p><strong>Materials and methods: </strong>We developed an acute lung injury model using C57BL/6 mice and MLE-12 cells. Through a combination of network pharmacology and in vitro screening, vitexin was identified as the most promising anti-inflammatory compound. Multiple techniques such as western blotting, real-time PCR, Hematoxylin and eosin staining, immunohistochemistry, and TUNEL assay were used. Additionally, immunofluorescence, DCFDA and TMRE staining, flow cytometry, methylation-specific PCR, and gene transfection techniques were performed to elucidate vitexin's potential targets and underlying mechanisms.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Vitexin treatment significantly reduced lung damage, neutrophil infiltration, and inflammation while improving tight junction integrity. In LPS-treated RAW264.7 macrophages and a septic mouse BALF-induced MLE-12 cell injury model, vitexin demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects, promoted M2 macrophage polarization, and enhanced regenerative markers. It also decreased oxidative stress, mitigated apoptosis and pyroptosis, and improved mitochondrial function. Our research uncovered a novel epigenetic regulatory mechanism involving lncRNA SNHG1, DNMT1, and miR-495.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Vitexin's ability to reduce inflammation, counteract oxidative stress, and modulate epigenetic processes. These findings underscore the promising role of vitexin as a treatment for ALI generated by sepsis. The SNHG1/miR-495 axis, which has been identified, represents a new target for future therapies in acute lung injury.</p>","PeriodicalId":13551,"journal":{"name":"Inflammopharmacology","volume":" ","pages":"1435-1454"},"PeriodicalIF":4.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142785323","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A review on NLRP3 inflammasome modulation by animal venom proteins/peptides: mechanisms and therapeutic insights.","authors":"Akshad Balde, Soottawat Benjakul, Rasool Abdul Nazeer","doi":"10.1007/s10787-025-01656-7","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10787-025-01656-7","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The venom peptides from terrestrial as well as aquatic species have demonstrated potential in regulating the NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, a sophisticated assemblage present in immune cells responsible for detecting and responding to external mediators. The NLRP3 inflammasome plays a role in several pathological conditions such as type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, Alzheimer's disease, obesity, autoimmune disorders, and cardiovascular disorders. Venom peptides derived from animal venoms have been discovered to selectively induce certain signalling pathways, such as the NLRP3 inflammasome, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). Experimental evidence has demonstrated that venom peptides can regulate the expression and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, resulting in the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. Furthermore, these peptides have been discovered to impede the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, therefore diminishing inflammation and tissue injury. The functional properties of venom proteins and peptides obtained from snakes, bees, wasps, and scorpions have been thoroughly investigated, specifically targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway, venom proteins and peptides have shown promise as therapeutic agents for the treatment of certain inflammatory disorders. This review discusses the pathophysiology of NLRP3 inflammasome in the onset of various diseases, role of venom as therapeutics. Further, various venom components and their role in the modulation of NLRP3 inflammasome are discoursed. A substantial number of venomous animals and their toxins are yet unexplored, and to comprehensively grasp the mechanisms of action of them and their potential as therapeutic agents, additional research is required which can lead to the development of novel therapeutics.</p>","PeriodicalId":13551,"journal":{"name":"Inflammopharmacology","volume":" ","pages":"1013-1031"},"PeriodicalIF":4.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143399143","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ferroptosis role in complexity of cell death: unrevealing mechanisms in Parkinson's disease and therapeutic approaches.","authors":"Anupam Awasthi, Kousik Maparu, Shamsher Singh","doi":"10.1007/s10787-025-01672-7","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10787-025-01672-7","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Parkinson's disease (PD), a common neurodegenerative disorder, is characterized by progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons, and accumulation of α-synuclein in the substantial nigra. Emerging evidence identifies ferroptosis as a regulated iron-dependent cell death mechanism marked by excessive lipid peroxidation (LPO) as a key contributor to PD pathogenesis. Ferroptosis is intertwined with critical disease processes such as aggregation of α-synuclein protein, oxidative stress generation, mitochondrial alteration, iron homeostasis dysregulation, and neuroinflammation. This mechanism disrupts cellular homeostasis by impairing iron metabolism and antioxidant pathways like the xc^-/glutathione/GPX4 axis and the CoQ10 pathway. This review consolidates current advancements in understanding ferroptosis in these mechanisms, increasing interest in contribution to PD pathology. In addition, it explores the latest developments in ferroptosis-targeting pharmacological agents, including their application in the preclinical and clinical study, and highlights their potential to revolutionize PD management. Unraveling the interplay between ferroptosis and PD offers a transformative perspective, paving the way for innovative therapies to combat this debilitating disease condition.</p>","PeriodicalId":13551,"journal":{"name":"Inflammopharmacology","volume":" ","pages":"1271-1287"},"PeriodicalIF":4.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143491905","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Anti-inflammatory effect of nestorone in a lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury model through regulation of the TLR-4/Myd88/NF-κB signaling pathway.","authors":"Aying Ma, Jieyun Zhou, Hui Zou, Li Yuan, Ruihua Zhong, Yan Zhu, Chao Gao","doi":"10.1007/s10787-024-01625-6","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10787-024-01625-6","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Progesterone plays a crucial and indispensable role in regulating immunity and attenuating inflammation. Nestorone^® (NES, segesterone acetate) is a steroidal progestin and a 19-norprogesterone derivative with no -CH₃ group radical at the 6-position. Here, we showed that NES enhanced the viability of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated THP-1 cell-derived macrophages, potently inhibiting both arms of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) signaling cascade triggered by LPS, especially the TLR-4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway. In addition, NES exerted an anti-inflammatory effect by significantly decreasing the secretion of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in type II alveolar epithelial A549 cells and THP-1 cell-derived macrophages stimulated by LPS. Furthermore, we evaluated the potential of NES pre-treatment, administered 2 h prior to LPS exposure, to mitigate acute lung injury induced by LPS, using an LPS-induced acute lung injury (ALI) mouse model. In this study, NES alleviated lung inflammation and damage by reducing leukocyte infiltration and inflammatory cytokines in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung tissues of mice. Interestingly, our findings indicate that NES at a dosage of 1 mg/kg (91.67%) was more effective than at dosages of 0.1 mg/kg (70.83%) or 10 mg/kg (87.50%), as well as more effective than dexamethasone (DEX, 5 mg/kg, 83.34%), in extending survival in mice subjected to lethal LPS-induced injury. Additionally, this dosage was more successful in reducing acute lung inflammation and alleviating diffuse alveolar damage in the lungs of C57 mice. Our study indicates that concentration is a critical determinant of the anti-inflammatory efficacy of NES. Consequently, NES emerges as a potentially promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of pulmonary inflammatory conditions through the modulation of TLR-4 signaling pathways.</p>","PeriodicalId":13551,"journal":{"name":"Inflammopharmacology","volume":" ","pages":"1473-1489"},"PeriodicalIF":4.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11913939/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142846623","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Uncovering the intricacies of IGF-1 in Alzheimer's disease: new insights from regulation to therapeutic targeting.","authors":"Navpreet Kaur, Khadga Raj Aran","doi":"10.1007/s10787-025-01641-0","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10787-025-01641-0","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the accumulation of amyloid-β plaques and tau tangles, leading to cognitive decline and dementia. Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 (IGF-1) is similar in structure to insulin and is crucial for cell growth, differentiation, and regulating oxidative stress, synaptic plasticity, and mitochondrial function. IGF-1 exerts its physiological effects by binding to the IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) and activating PI3K/Akt pathway. In addition to the physiological activities in the brain, numerous studies point to a potential protective role of the IGF-1 pathway in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD. Interestingly, patients with AD often exhibit altered insulin and IGF-1 levels, along with an inadequate insulin response. Dysregulation of IGF-1 signaling contributes to hyperphosphorylation of tau, NFT accumulation, increased β- and γ-secretase activity, elevated Aβ production, and impaired Aβ clearance, highlighting the need to explore the role of this signaling for potential therapeutic targets of AD. This review explores the role of IGF signaling in AD pathology, highlighting IGF-1 as a promising therapeutic target due to its significant involvement in disease mechanisms. Modulating IGF-1 activity could help mitigate neurodegeneration and preserve cognitive function in AD. A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying IGF-1 dysregulation is crucial for developing targeted therapeutic strategies to address the complex and multifaceted nature of AD.</p>","PeriodicalId":13551,"journal":{"name":"Inflammopharmacology","volume":" ","pages":"1311-1330"},"PeriodicalIF":4.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143065326","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Dissolving microneedle patch for transdermal delivery of perindopril erbumine.","authors":"Zunaira Altaf, Zulcaif Ahmad, Asif Mahmood, Saniia Shchinar, Riffat Latif","doi":"10.1007/s10787-025-01696-z","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10787-025-01696-z","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Perindopril Erbumine is a widely used angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor for managing hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Its dual action of lowering blood pressure and mitigating inflammation makes it a cornerstone treatment in these conditions. However, its oral administration often results in suboptimal bioavailability and gastrointestinal side effects. This study aimed to develop and characterize a dissolving microneedle (dMN) patch for the transdermal delivery of Perindopril Erbumine to enhance therapeutic efficacy and patient compliance. A Perindopril Erbumine-loaded microneedle patch was fabricated using chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) using the solvent casting method. The microneedle patch was evaluated for physical properties, mechanical strength, drug loading, and moisture content. Ex-vivo permeation through rat skin and in-vivo pharmacokinetic studies in rabbits was conducted to compare its performance with a marketed oral Perindopril Erbumine formulation. The developed patch demonstrated effective skin penetration, controlled drug release, and a six-fold enhancement in cumulative drug permeation (82.45% ± 1.54) compared to the oral solution (14.32% ± 1.60). The pharmacokinetic study revealed prolonged drug release, with a 7.9-fold increase in half-life (7.739 ± 0.243 h vs. 0.986 ± 0.93 h) and a significantly higher area under the curve (AUC) for the microneedle patch. Skin irritation studies confirmed the biocompatibility of the formulation, with no significant adverse effects observed. These findings highlight the potential of Perindopril Erbumine-loaded dissolving microneedles as a promising transdermal delivery system for improved therapeutic outcomes in managing hypertension and inflammation-related vascular conditions, potentially reducing inflammation through enhanced and targeted drug delivery.</p>","PeriodicalId":13551,"journal":{"name":"Inflammopharmacology","volume":" ","pages":"1381-1391"},"PeriodicalIF":4.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143500832","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effect of intramuscular vs intra-articular betamethasone injection on pain and inflammatory factors among patients with severe traumatic knee osteoarthritis.","authors":"Yongjun Liu, Hongwei Gao, Bin Du, Qianwen Huo","doi":"10.1007/s10787-024-01637-2","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10787-024-01637-2","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Objective: </strong>The aim of this study was to comprehensively investigate the clinical efficacy of intraoperative local joint injection and intramuscular injection of betamethasone in patients with severe traumatic knee osteoarthritis (KOA).</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>80 patients with severe traumatic KOA undergoing total knee arthroplasty were retrospectively recruited and rolled into S1 group (intra-articular injection of ropivacaine + betamethasone and isotonic saline mixture at joint incision), S2 group (muscle local injection of betamethasone before incision closure, simultaneously intra-articular injection of ropivacaine + isotonic saline mixture at joint incision), and D group (intra-articular injection of ropivacaine + isotonic saline mixture at the joint incision). Visual analog scale (VAS) score, serum inflammatory factors (IFs), hospital for special surgery (HSS)score, Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI), and adverse reaction events (AREs) were analyzed.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Pain scores of patients in all three groups decreased drastically over time on postoperative days (PDs) 1, 2, and 3, with the scores in S1 and S2 groups markedly inferior to D group (P < 0.05). HSS scores of patients in S1 and S2 groups at postoperative months 1, 3, and 6 were considerably superior to those in D group (P < 0.05). PSQI scores of patients in S1 and S2 groups at postoperative months 1, 3, and 6 were notably inferior to those in D group (P < 0.05).</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Both intraoperative local joint injection and muscle injection of betamethasone are effective in patients with severe traumatic KOA.</p>","PeriodicalId":13551,"journal":{"name":"Inflammopharmacology","volume":" ","pages":"1349-1356"},"PeriodicalIF":4.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142978344","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Nano-interventions for dengue: a comprehensive review of control, detection and treatment strategies.","authors":"Samia Shaikh, Padakanti Sandeep Chary, Neelesh Kumar Mehra","doi":"10.1007/s10787-025-01655-8","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10787-025-01655-8","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Dengue, a formidable life-threatening malady, currently exerts a profound impact upon the Western Pacific and Southeast-Asian developing and underdeveloped nations. The intricacies inherent in addressing dengue are manifold, requiring a concerted effort not only towards vector control but also the implementation of efficacious host treatments to forestall the progression of the disease into severe manifestations, such as hemorrhage and shock. The only vaccine available for dengue in the market is DENGVAXIA, with several other vaccine candidates which are currently in the clinical developmental stages. However, DENGVAXIA, owing to incidences of adverse events in among children, was withdrawn in Philippines. This warrants the development of new safer vaccine candidates. The existent control strategies, regrettably, demonstrate inadequacy in effectively mitigating the rampant dissemination of this ailment. Moreover, the diagnostic and therapeutic modalities exhibit potential for refinement, specifically through precision diagnostics and tailored therapeutic interventions, to enhance the precision and efficacy of dengue management. This comprehensive review endeavors to provide an in-depth elucidation of the utilization of nanotechnology-based approaches synergistically integrated with conventional methodologies in the overarching domains of dengue control, diagnosis, and treatment.</p>","PeriodicalId":13551,"journal":{"name":"Inflammopharmacology","volume":" ","pages":"979-1011"},"PeriodicalIF":4.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143457678","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Nanostructured lipid carriers in Rheumatoid Arthritis: treatment, advancements and applications.","authors":"Swarnika Sharma, Rashmi Ghosh, Arockia Babu Marianesan, Sumaya Hussain, Jai Deo Pandey, Manish Kumar","doi":"10.1007/s10787-025-01669-2","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10787-025-01669-2","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the joints and causes pain, swelling, and deformity. Current treatments, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, often have limited efficacy and adverse side effects. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are promising drug delivery agents for treating RA. NLCs are comprised of solid and liquid lipids, forming a nanostructured matrix that enhances drug solubility, stability, and controlled release. They offer advantages over traditional carriers such as improved skin penetration, increased bioavailability, and reduced systemic side effects. Topical NLC formulations show improved stability and skin absorption, targeting drugs specifically to the affected joints, thus reducing the required dose and systemic exposure. Studies on NLCs for delivering anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic drugs, such as methotrexate, indomethacin, and curcumin, in RA animal models indicate the potential for improved therapeutic efficacy and safety. NLCs represent a promising approach for targeted RA drug delivery, offering better efficacy, fewer side effects, and higher patient compliance. However, further research is needed to optimize NLC formulations and evaluate their clinical efficacy and safety in RA patients. The development of NLC-based drug delivery systems for RA treatment may lead to more effective and well-tolerated therapies, thereby improving the quality of life of patients with this debilitating disease.</p>","PeriodicalId":13551,"journal":{"name":"Inflammopharmacology","volume":" ","pages":"941-958"},"PeriodicalIF":4.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143537044","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Extracellular vesicles as therapeutic agents in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review of current evidence.","authors":"Xiaolei Miao, Amirreza Ghafourian, Mahdi Karimi Khaneghah, Seyed Mohammad Ayyoubzadeh, Reza Afrisham, Mahnaz Ahmadi","doi":"10.1007/s10787-025-01670-9","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10787-025-01670-9","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is defined as a chronic autoimmune disease that severely influences a patient's quality of life. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have gained much attention in recent years as one of the most potent therapeutic agents for the treatment of RA. A systematic review was performed with the purpose of assessing the current evidence relating to the therapeutic applications of EVs in RA. The systematic search was performed in the databases of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, from inception times to September 2024. All studies investigating the use of EVs for the treatment of RA were included. The quality appraisal of selected articles and data extraction regarding EV characteristics, therapeutic applications, and associated outcomes were performed. Of the 1418 initially identified articles, 59 studies met inclusion criteria. Regarding their cellular origins, most EVs were derived from mesenchymal stem cells, followed by immune cells. The main therapeutic mechanisms included modulation of the immune response, reduction of inflammation, and repair of tissues. Recent trends are toward increasing interest in engineered EVs and combination therapies. Indeed, most studies reported positive outcomes with regard to lowered inflammation and improved joint function. On the other hand, standardization of the metrics of evaluation considerably varied between different studies. EVs are promising therapeutic agents in the treatment of RA by modulating immune responses. Standardization, delivery systems, and clinical translation are challenges yet to be overcome. Future studies will be directed to optimize EV engineering, targeted delivery systems, and large-scale clinical trials.</p>","PeriodicalId":13551,"journal":{"name":"Inflammopharmacology","volume":" ","pages":"889-915"},"PeriodicalIF":4.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143537088","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}