Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience最新文献

{"title":"Editorial: Neural correlates of visual learning and object representation in inferior temporal lobe.","authors":"Mark A G Eldridge, Yasuko Sugase-Miyamoto","doi":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1584584","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1584584","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":12368,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience","volume":"19 ","pages":"1584584"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11975662/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143810891","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Drugs of abuse drive neurotransmitter plasticity that alters behavior: implications for mental health.","authors":"Marta Pratelli, Nicholas C Spitzer","doi":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1551213","DOIUrl":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1551213","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Neurotransmission is a complex process with multiple levels of regulation that, when altered, can significantly impact mental health. Neurons in the adult brain can release more than one transmitter and environmental stimuli can change the type of transmitter neurons express. Changes in the transmitter neurons express can generate changes in animal behavior. The ability of neurons to express multiple transmitters and/or switch them in response to environmental stimuli likely evolved to provide flexibility and complexity to neuronal circuit function in an ever-changing environment. However, this adaptability can become maladaptive when generating behavioral alterations that are unfit for the environment in which the animal lives or the tasks it needs to perform. Repeated exposure to addictive substances induces long-lasting molecular and synaptic changes, driving the appearance of maladaptive behaviors that can result in drug misuse and addiction. Recent findings have shown that one way drugs of abuse alter the brain is by inducing changes in the transmitter neurons express. Here, we review evidence of prolonged exposure to addictive substances inducing changes in the number of neurons expressing the neuropeptide orexin, the neuromodulator dopamine, and the inhibitory transmitter GABA. These findings show that drug-induced transmitter plasticity is conserved across species, that addictive substances belonging to different classes of chemicals can induce the same type of plasticity, and that exposure to only one drug can cause different neuronal types to change the transmitter they express. Importantly, drug-induced transmitter plasticity contributes to the long-term negative effects of drug consumption, and it can, in some cases, be either prevented or reversed to alleviate these outcomes. Regional neuronal hyperactivity appears to modulate the appearance and stabilization of drug-induced changes in transmitter expression, which are no longer observed when activity is normalized. Overall, these findings underscore the importance of continuing to investigate the extent and behavioral significance of drug-induced neurotransmitter plasticity and exploring whether non-invasive strategies can be used to reverse it as a means to mitigate the maladaptive effects of drug use.</p>","PeriodicalId":12368,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience","volume":"19 ","pages":"1551213"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11962007/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143771918","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Hyperactivity in male and female mice manifests differently following early, acute prenatal alcohol exposure and mild juvenile stress.","authors":"Amy F Pietrantonio, Raluca A Urian, Daniel B Hardy, Brian L Allman, Katherine E Willmore","doi":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1501937","DOIUrl":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1501937","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>Chronic prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) and severe juvenile stress independently contribute to hyperactive and depressive behavioral phenotypes, with their combination exacerbating these effects. However, while chronic PAE and traumatic juvenile stress are well-studied, little is known about the impact of early, acute PAE and mild juvenile stress on hyperactivity and depression. This knowledge gap is clinically relevant, as these milder early-life insults are common in Western societies. Here, we provide the first investigation into the effects of early, acute PAE and juvenile sub-chronic, unpredictable, mild stress (SUMS)-both independently and in combination-on hyperactivity and depressive-like behaviors in mice throughout the lifespan.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We assessed hyperactivity through movement-related measures (i.e., distance traveled, thigmotaxis, and rearing), whereas depressive-like behaviors were evaluated using the u-shaped two-choice field and forced swim tests. Behavioural testing was performed on equivalent numbers of male and female offspring and repeated at juvenile, adolescent, and adult timepoints to enable assessment of sex and age effects.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Neither early, acute PAE, juvenile SUMS, nor their combination induced depressive-like behaviors at any age; findings in contrast to the more severe chronic PAE and stress insults used in previous studies. However, these milder early-life insults did result in various hyperactivity phenotypes in both the male and female offspring. For example, juvenile SUMS had the strongest impact on hyperactive behaviors across both sexes, but only the adolescent females exhibited increased emotionality-associated activity. Moreover, early, acute PAE-both alone and in combination with juvenile SUMS significantly increased movement during adolescence and adulthood exclusively in male offspring.</p><p><strong>Discussion: </strong>Thus, our collective findings not only indicate that early, acute PAE and juvenile SUMS influence hyperactivity in a sex- and age-dependent manner, but also highlight that their influence on hyperactive and depressive phenotypes do not simply mirror those of the more severe early-life insults. Given the potential prevalence of early, acute alcohol exposure and juvenile stress in Western society, further research is warranted to fully understand their long-term behavioral consequences.</p>","PeriodicalId":12368,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience","volume":"19 ","pages":"1501937"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11958967/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143763413","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The rhythm of memory. Does theta frequency audio/visual flicker improve recall?","authors":"Louise Simeonov, Ravi Das","doi":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1555081","DOIUrl":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1555081","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>A fundamental question in cognitive neuroscience is how multi-sensory elements are bound into a unified memory trace. The formation of memories is thought to be reliant on precisely timed neural activity. Theta frequency neural oscillations have been proposed to orchestrate the timing of different sensory cortices. Here, we attempt to replicate findings that flickering stimuli presented in synchronous theta frequency will lead to enhanced recall. Additionally, we investigate whether theta frequency sensory flicker can improve encoding of emotional associative memories. The current study failed to replicate previous findings demonstrating improved recall for stimuli synchronously modulated at theta frequency in a multi-sensory associative learning task. We discuss possible explanations for the discrepancy between current and previous findings.</p>","PeriodicalId":12368,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience","volume":"19 ","pages":"1555081"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11966484/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143778993","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Consumption of dopamine receptor 1 agonist SKF-38393 reduces constant-light-induced hyperactivity, depression-like, and anxiety-like behaviors in a sex specific manner in C57BL/6J mice.","authors":"Grace E Guindon, Alexis Anzalone, Samantha G Burke, Cloey A Murphy, Maria E Milano, John C Price, Stephanie Tadros, Alexander T McFarland, Fernanda Medieros Contini, Joseph A Seggio","doi":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1537048","DOIUrl":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1537048","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Artificial light exposure during nighttime, including constant light (LL), is an increasingly prevalent environmental occurrence linked to impaired mood and cognitive impairments in both humans and animal models. Dopamine and dopamine 1 receptors are well known to modulate circadian rhythms and mood. This study investigated the effects of LL on anxiety-like, depressive-like, and cognitive behaviors in male and female C57BL/6J mice and assessed whether consumption of SKF-38393, a dopamine 1 receptor agonist, can mitigate these negative behavioral outcomes. Mice were exposed to LL or a standard 12:12 light:dark cycle (LD) for 6 weeks, with subgroups receiving either SKF-38393 or water. All mice had their circadian rhythms continuously monitored and were placed within behavioral tests that assayed their anxiety-like, depressive-like, and learning and memory behaviors. Behavioral assays revealed that LL increased hyperactivity and anxiety-like behaviors, which were mitigated by SKF-38393 consumption in both sexes. In addition, male mice exhibited anhedonia under LL, which was alleviated by SKF-38393, whereas female mice were resistant to LL-induced anhedonia. Sex differences emerged in fluid consumption independent of lighting condition, with females consuming more SKF-38393, and in responses to DA on behavior, including novel object recognition and exploration. These results indicate that low dose oral consumption of dopamine 1 receptor agonists can ameliorate some of the negative behavioral effects of LL exposure. This study highlights the complex interplay between chronic light, dopamine, and sex in influencing mood and behavior, suggesting potential modulatory roles for dopamine 1 receptor agonists in regulating behavioral outcomes to circadian disturbances.</p>","PeriodicalId":12368,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience","volume":"19 ","pages":"1537048"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11936926/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143718495","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Anxiety in youth with and without specific learning disorders: exploring the relationships with inhibitory control, perfectionism, and self-conscious emotions.","authors":"Rachele Lievore, Ramona Cardillo, Irene Cristina Mammarella","doi":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1536192","DOIUrl":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1536192","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>Since early research on Specific Learning Disorders (SLD), their relationship with emotional issues have been recognized, although emotional factors have received less attention compared to the cognitive processes related with academic achievement.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>This study aimed to investigate mechanisms that may increase vulnerability to generalized and social anxiety in youth with SLD, compared to their non-diagnosed peers. We examined cognitive factors (inhibitory control), personality traits (self-oriented, socially prescribed perfectionism), and self-conscious emotions (shame, guilt). The sample included 134 individuals aged 10 to 16, divided into two groups: 67 with SLD and 67 without diagnoses, matched by age, sex, and IQ. Participants completed questionnaires on anxiety, perfectionism, and selfconscious emotions, alongside an inhibitory control task.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Findings revealed that those with SLD reported higher generalized and social anxiety, poorer inhibitory control, greater socially prescribed perfectionism, and more shame than nondiagnosed peers. Socially prescribed perfectionism was found to increase the risk of generalized anxiety in participants with SLD, while both socially prescribed perfectionism and shame were predictors of social anxiety across both groups. Finally, self-oriented perfectionism seemed to be associated with lower social anxiety in the SLD group.</p><p><strong>Discussion: </strong>These findings suggest that interventions should address risk and protective factors, focusing on reducing anxiety and fostering adaptive self-regulation strategies.</p>","PeriodicalId":12368,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience","volume":"19 ","pages":"1536192"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11931035/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143699960","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Low-dose proton induced genetic alteration in cingulate cortex and declined its relevant cognitive function in behaviors.","authors":"Gyutae Kim, Hyelim Park, Kyu-Sung Kim","doi":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1514579","DOIUrl":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1514579","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Environmental radiation poses health risks to the central nervous system (CNS) as well as the internal organs. While the technology for managing radiation has improved, the effects of low-dose radiation in the long term are still considered as a health-related risky factor. The clinical and space radiation studies suggested cognitive threat from proton, but the inconsistent behavioral responses to low-dose proton made their cognitive effects elusive. Here, we examined the low-dose proton-induced functional changes by measuring genetic and behavioral responses. Total 54 mice (C57BL/6, 7 weeks, males) were used for this study. The genetic effects were tested using the brain tissue (cingulate cortex, CC), one of core regions for cognition, and the behavioral responses were evaluated by open field (OFT) and radial maze tests (RMT). In 4 weeks after irradiation, all genes (HSPA, GFAP, MBP, NEFL, NEFM) showed peak inflammatory responses (<i>p</i> < 2.05×10^-3), and these reactions were resolved in 3 months, returning to the initial level of foldchanges. The behavioral changes were identified between 4 weeks and 3 months, which was after the peak genetic inflammatory period. The moving distance and the speed were maintained up to 4 weeks, but both motional factors decreased with significance after 4 weeks (<i>p</i> < 0.126×10^-3). Unlike the results in OFT, no parameters in RMT showed a significant difference among the groups. Considering the overall results, low-dose protons induced reversible genetic alteration in the central regions over time, and their delayed effects on cognitive behaviors were limited, with consequences varying depending on the functional types of cognition. Our current findings are expected to provide critical information for the development of substantive regulations for astronauts' health and clinical use of proton.</p>","PeriodicalId":12368,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience","volume":"19 ","pages":"1514579"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11931133/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143699967","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Behavioral tests for the assessment of social hierarchy in mice.","authors":"Hao Zheng, Dantong Chen, Zilong Zhong, Ziyi Li, Meng Yuan, Zhenkun Zhang, Xiaoping Zhou, Guohui Zhu, Hongwei Sun, Lin Sun","doi":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1549666","DOIUrl":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1549666","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Social hierarchy refers to the set of social ranks in a group of animals where individuals can gain priority access to resources through repeated social interactions. Key mechanisms involved in this process include conflict, social negotiation, prior experience, and physical advantages. The establishment and maintenance of social hierarchies not only promote group stability and well-being but also shape individual social behaviors by fostering cooperation and reducing conflict. Existing research indicates that social hierarchy is closely associated with immune responses, neural regulation, metabolic processes, and endocrine functions. These physiological systems collectively modulate an individual's sensitivity to stress and influence adaptive responses, thereby playing a critical role in the development of psychiatric disorders such as depression and anxiety. This review summarizes the primary behavioral methods used to assess social dominance in mice, evaluates their applicability and limitations, and discusses potential improvements. Additionally, it explores the underlying neural mechanisms associated with these methods to deepen our understanding of their biological basis. By critically assessing existing methodologies and proposing refinements, this study aims to provide a systematic reference framework and methodological guidance for future research, facilitating a more comprehensive exploration of the neural mechanisms underlying social behavior. The role of sex differences in social hierarchy formation remains underexplored. Most studies focus predominantly on males, while the distinct social strategies and physiological mechanisms of females are currently overlooked. Future studies should place greater emphasis on evaluating social hierarchy in female mice to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of sex-specific social behaviors and their impact on group structure and individual health. Advances in automated tracking technologies may help address this gap by improving behavioral assessments in female mice. Future research may also benefit from integrating physiological data (e.g., hormone levels) to gain deeper insights into the relationships between social status, stress regulation, and mental health. Additionally, developments in artificial intelligence and deep learning could enhance individual recognition and behavioral analysis, potentially reducing reliance on chemical markers or implanted devices.</p>","PeriodicalId":12368,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience","volume":"19 ","pages":"1549666"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11920152/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143662911","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mild traumatic brain injury increases vulnerability to post-traumatic stress disorder in rats and the possible role of hippocampal DNA methylation.","authors":"Yujie Niu, Zhibiao Cai, Junkai Cheng, Jie Zhou, Xiaodong Qu, Changdong Li, Zhongjing Zhang, Shenghao Zhang, Yaqiang Nan, Qifeng Tang, Lei Zhang, Yelu Hao","doi":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1539028","DOIUrl":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1539028","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>Clinical studies have established that patients with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) are at an increased risk for developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), suggesting that mTBI increases vulnerability to subsequent PTSD onset. However, preclinical animal studies investigating this link remain scarce, and the specific biological mechanism through which mTBI increases vulnerability to PTSD is largely unknown.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>In this study, we modeled mTBI in rats using a mild, closed-head, weight-drop injury, followed 72 h later by exposure to single prolonged stress (SPS) to simulate PTSD. Then, we investigated the impact of mTBI on subsequent PTSD development by observing the behaviors of rats in a series of validated behavioral tests and further explored the possible role of hippocampal DNA methylation.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>We found that, compared with rats in the PTSD-only group, those in the mTBI + PTSD group exhibited higher anxiety levels, higher depression levels, and impaired spatial learning and memory as determined in the open field test, the forced swimming test, and the Morris water maze test, respectively. Rats in the mTBI + PTSD group also exhibited higher hippocampal DNMT3b protein expression compared with those in the PTSD group.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>In conclusion, our results demonstrated that mTBI increases vulnerability to PTSD in rats, possibly through alterations in hippocampal DNA methylation patterns.</p>","PeriodicalId":12368,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience","volume":"19 ","pages":"1539028"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11911326/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143647885","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Robotic animals as new tools in rodent neuroscience research: proposed applications of zooinspired robots for mouse behavioral testing.","authors":"Raffaele d'Isa","doi":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1545352","DOIUrl":"10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1545352","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Bioinspired robots are machines which reproduce structural or functional features of a living organism. In particular, the bioinspired robots which reproduce features of animals can be more specifically defined as zooinspired robots. Currently, the applications of animal robots are various and range across different fields, such as, for instance, nature conservation, search and rescue of humans after natural or man-made disasters, exploration of extraterrestrial environments and robotic pets for elderly people under care for dementia. Several animal species have been imitated up to now, from lizards to butterflies, and from fish to dogs. Animal robots used to investigate the social behavior of an animal species through animal-robot interactions are called ethorobots. Intriguingly, ethorobots are able to reproduce in the laboratory behaviors that are generally produced spontaneously in nature and are difficult or impossible to evoke and modulate in captive animals, which makes these animal robots particularly useful tools for experimental ethology and ethological neuroscience. Rodents, primarily mice and rats, are the most common animal model in biomedical research. Coherently with the importance of these species for scientific research, robotic mice and rats have been attracting increasing efforts in bioinspired robotics over the course of the past five decades. The technological advancement of animal robots will make their employment for scientific research increasingly useful. However, clear experimental applications of animal robots should be identified in order to challenge engineers to design robots that can serve these experimental scopes. In the present work, we will describe possible practical applications of robotic animals for mouse behavioral testing across six different behavioral domains, namely courtship, parental care, antipredatory behavior, helping behavior, predation and territory defense-related aggression. In particular, we will outline how robotic animals could be employed to interact with living mice in a series of specific tests of social behavior. Finally, in the conclusion we will consider the ethical and epistemological advantages of the use of robotic animals in behavioral neuroscience. Indeed, robotic animals can benefit scientific research on social behaviors both in terms of optimized animal welfare of the tested subjects and of extended opportunities of experimental designing due to an unprecedented control over the independent variables.</p>","PeriodicalId":12368,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience","volume":"19 ","pages":"1545352"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-02-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11891199/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143596632","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}