European Journal of Neuroscience最新文献

{"title":"Tonic Electrical Stimulation of the Locus Coeruleus Enhances Cortical Sensory-Evoked Responses via Noradrenaline α1 and β Receptors","authors":"Takanobu Suzuki,&nbsp;Kazuaki Nagasaka,&nbsp;Tomofumi Otsuki,&nbsp;Naofumi Otsuru,&nbsp;Hideaki Onishi","doi":"10.1111/ejn.70020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.70020","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>The locus coeruleus (LC) neurons send extensive projections to the somatosensory cortex and release noradrenaline (NA) at synaptic terminals, which is thought to regulate the activation of sensory-related cells by acting on three types of receptors (α1, α2 and β). Although previous studies have examined the effects of LC stimulation on single-unit sensory neurons, their impact on somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) and their temporal variations, as well as the specific roles of NA receptors, remain unclear. Herein, we investigated how SEPs are modulated by tonic LC stimulation at physiological frequencies (0.1, 1 and 4 Hz) and identified the receptors involved in these changes. Forepaw stimulation-induced amplitudes in SEP were enhanced in response to 1 Hz stimulation of the LC but not in response to 0.1 and 4 Hz stimulation. Interestingly, the enhancement of SEPs after LC stimulation persisted for tens of minutes following the cessation of stimulation. Optical imaging using a voltage-sensitive dye showed an increase in the depolarizing response in the somatosensory cortex after 1 Hz stimulation. Prazosin (α1 receptor antagonist) and propranolol (β receptor antagonist) inhibited SEP enhancement following 1 Hz LC stimulation, whereas yohimbine (α2 receptor antagonist) had no effect. This suggests that the enhancement in SEP observed is primarily mediated by the activation of cortical excitatory α1 and β receptors. These findings provide insight into the impact of the NA system on sensory information processing and the pathophysiology of sensory disorders related to the disruption of the NA system.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11993,"journal":{"name":"European Journal of Neuroscience","volume":"61 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143396953","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ketones on the Brain: Can Diet Help Turn the Tables on Parkinson's?—Commentary on Mahajan et al. (2024)","authors":"Ana Luiza Drumond-Bock,&nbsp;Michael J. Beckstead","doi":"10.1111/ejn.70025","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.70025","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;p&gt;While disease-modifying therapeutics for Parkinson's disease (PD) remain elusive, lifestyle changes are promising but often overlooked options for diminishing symptoms and slowing disease progression. Ketogenic diet (KD), first touted a century ago as a treatment for epilepsy, has shown encouraging signs as an alternative therapy for idiopathic PD (Vanitallie et al. &lt;span&gt;2005&lt;/span&gt;). Deficits in neuronal metabolism are central contributors to many neurodegenerative diseases (Yang, Park, and Lu &lt;span&gt;2023&lt;/span&gt;), and patients with PD exhibit deficiencies in mitochondrial complex I function (González-Rodríguez et al. &lt;span&gt;2021&lt;/span&gt;). Neurons are capable of oxidizing ketone bodies as an alternative energy source that can bypass complex I, providing a potential mechanism to boost energy production in the face of poorly functioning mitochondria (Tieu et al. &lt;span&gt;2003&lt;/span&gt;). Pre-clinical studies using the complex I inhibitor 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) demonstrate that KD can prevent motor dysfunction and dopaminergic degeneration associated with this PD model (Jiang et al. &lt;span&gt;2023&lt;/span&gt;; Yang and Cheng &lt;span&gt;2010&lt;/span&gt;; Zhang et al. &lt;span&gt;2023&lt;/span&gt;). Exposure to KD prior to MPTP or lipopolysaccharide treatment promotes neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects in the brain (Fu et al. &lt;span&gt;2015&lt;/span&gt;; Yang and Cheng &lt;span&gt;2010&lt;/span&gt;), attenuates glial activation and promotes beneficial changes in gut microbiota (Jiang et al. &lt;span&gt;2023&lt;/span&gt;; Zhang et al. &lt;span&gt;2023&lt;/span&gt;). In a recent issue of EJN, Mahajan and colleagues (Mahajan et al. &lt;span&gt;2024&lt;/span&gt;) expanded on this work by exploring two questions: (1) Could a ketone-rich diet be a useful intervention in a &lt;i&gt;progressive genetic model&lt;/i&gt; of mitochondrial dysfunction in PD? and (2) Can ketone supplementation be neuroprotective when given post-symptomatically?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;To accomplish this, the authors used the phenotypically-faithful MitoPark mouse model of PD, which is a dopamine neuron-specific knockout of mitochondrial transcription factor A (Tfam) (Ekstrand et al. &lt;span&gt;2007&lt;/span&gt;). Tfam drives expression of mitochondria-encoded genes including those that are essential for respiratory chain function. This model mimics several key aspects of clinical PD progression, including adult-onset and age-dependent degeneration of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, producing catastrophic motor failure (Beckstead and Howell &lt;span&gt;2021&lt;/span&gt;). When the authors administered a ketone ester-enriched diet (KEED) to MitoPark mice beginning prior to the emergence of obvious motor deficits, they observed a substantial retention of locomotion and rotarod performance. This was accompanied by a modest improvement in striatal dopamine release, but interestingly, no clear preservation of the neurons themselves (i.e., survival). Further, some benefit was also observed when KEED was initiated at a later time point, following appearance of motor sympt","PeriodicalId":11993,"journal":{"name":"European Journal of Neuroscience","volume":"61 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/ejn.70025","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143389048","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effects of Noise and Reward on Pupil Size and Electroencephalographic Speech Tracking in a Word-Detection Task","authors":"Ivan Iotzov,&nbsp;Lucas C. Parra","doi":"10.1111/ejn.70009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.70009","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Speech is hard to understand when there is background noise. Speech intelligibility and listening effort both affect our ability to understand speech, but the relative contribution of these factors is hard to disentangle. Previous studies suggest that speech intelligibility could be assessed with EEG speech tracking and listening effort via pupil size. However, these measures may be confounded, because poor intelligibility may require a larger effort. To address this, we developed a novel word-detection paradigm that allows for a rapid behavioural assessment of speech processing. In this paradigm, words appear on the screen during continuous speech, similar to closed captioning. In two listening experiments with a total of 51 participants, we manipulated intelligibility by changing signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) and modulated effort by varying monetary reward. Increasing SNR improved detection performance along with EEG speech tracking. Additionally, we find that pupil size increases with increased SNR. Surprisingly, when we modulated both reward and SNR, we found that reward modulated only pupil size, whereas SNR modulated only EEG speech tracking. We interpret this as the effects of arousal and listening effort on pupil size and of intelligibility on EEG speech tracking. The experimental paradigm developed here may be beneficial when assessing hearing devices in terms of speech intelligibility and listening effort.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11993,"journal":{"name":"European Journal of Neuroscience","volume":"61 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143396954","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Correction to ‘Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Regulates Neuroinflammation, Relieves Hyperalgesia and Reverses Despair-Like Behaviour in Chronic Constriction Injury Rats’","authors":"","doi":"10.1111/ejn.16681","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.16681","url":null,"abstract":"<p>\u0000 <span>Hu, Y.</span>, <span>Y. Zhu</span>, <span>X. Wen</span>, <span>F. Zeng</span>, <span>Y. Feng</span>, <span>Z. Xu</span>, <span>F. Xu</span>, and <span>J. Wang</span>. <span>2022</span>. “ <span>Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Regulates Neuroinflammation, Relieves Hyperalgesia and Reverses Despair-Like Chronic Constriction Injury Rats</span>.” <i>European Journal of Neuroscience</i> <span>56</span>, no. <span>6</span>: <span>4930</span>–<span>4947</span>. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.15779.\u0000 </p><p>In the paper by Hu et al. (2022), there was an error in Table 2, where the western blot data presented were mistakenly derived from a different experiment conducted by the group. The correct western blot data were included in Figure 2C, and these accurately represent the findings for this study.</p><p>The correct Table 2 appears below:</p><p>This error does not affect the results, interpretations or conclusions of the study.</p><p>We apologize for this error.</p>","PeriodicalId":11993,"journal":{"name":"European Journal of Neuroscience","volume":"61 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/ejn.16681","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143389237","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Endothelial Cells and the Blood–Brain Barrier: Critical Determinants of Ineffective Reperfusion in Stroke","authors":"Xiang Li,&nbsp;Leticia Simo,&nbsp;Qianhui Zhao,&nbsp;Enoch Gene Kim,&nbsp;Yuchuan Ding,&nbsp;Xiaokun Geng","doi":"10.1111/ejn.16663","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.16663","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Ineffective reperfusion remains a critical challenge in neurointerventional treatment following ischemic stroke, with the integrity of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) being a key determinant of patient outcomes. This review explores the distinctive characteristics and roles of brain endothelial cells (ECs) in the context of stroke and ineffective reperfusion. We examine the unique properties of brain ECs compared to their counterparts in other tissues, focusing on their pathophysiological changes, functional impairments and the inflammatory cascades that follow stroke. Differences in gene expression between brain ECs and those in other organs offer deeper insights into their role in neuroprotective therapies. Additionally, drawing parallels between brain ECs and ECs from organs with similar ischemia–reperfusion injury profiles may inspire novel therapeutic approaches. This review highlights the critical importance of understanding the nuanced roles of ECs in BBB regulation, which ultimately impacts reperfusion outcomes.</p>","PeriodicalId":11993,"journal":{"name":"European Journal of Neuroscience","volume":"61 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/ejn.16663","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143389239","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Perceived Multisensory Common Cause Relations Shape the Ventriloquism Effect but Only Marginally the Trial-Wise Aftereffect","authors":"Christoph Kayser,&nbsp;Herbert Heuer","doi":"10.1111/ejn.70015","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.70015","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Combining multisensory cues is fundamental for perception and action and reflected by two frequently studied phenomena: multisensory integration and sensory recalibration. In the context of audio-visual spatial signals, these phenomena are exemplified by the ventriloquism effect and its aftereffect. The ventriloquism effect occurs when the perceived location of a sound is biased by a concurrent visual stimulus, while the aftereffect manifests as a recalibration of perceived sound location after exposure to spatially discrepant stimuli. The relationship between these processes—whether recalibration is a direct consequence of integration or operates independently—remains debated. We investigate the role of causal inference in these processes by examining whether trial-wise judgements about a common-cause underlying audio-visual stimuli influence both the ventriloquism effect and the immediate aftereffect. In a spatial paradigm, participants made explicit judgements about the common cause of stimulus pairs, and their influence on both perceptual biases was assessed. Results obtained across two experiments indicate that while multisensory integration is contingent on common cause judgements, the immediate recalibration effect is not. This suggests that recalibration can occur independently of the perceived commonality of the multisensory stimuli, challenging the notion that recalibration is solely a by-product of integration.</p>","PeriodicalId":11993,"journal":{"name":"European Journal of Neuroscience","volume":"61 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/ejn.70015","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143389245","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Rotenone-Induced Sporadic Parkinsonism Model: Timeline of Motor and Non-Motor Features","authors":"Tyciane de Souza Nascimento,&nbsp;Alfaete Vieira Oliveira,&nbsp;Mônica de Oliveira Bélem,&nbsp;Jéssica Rabelo Bezerra,&nbsp;Marta Regina Santos do Carmo,&nbsp;Mateus Edson da Silva,&nbsp;Rodrigo A. Cunha,&nbsp;Caio Roberto Caldas Feitosa,&nbsp;Armenio Aguiar do Santos,&nbsp;Tiago Lima Sampaio,&nbsp;Geanne Matos de Andrade","doi":"10.1111/ejn.16669","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.16669","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>The prevalence of Parkinson's disease (PD) requires better characterized animal models, in particular of the PD prodrome. Since pesticide are well-established triggers of Parkinsonism, we now undertook a detailed characterization of the time-dependent onset of behavioural and neurochemical alterations after the repeated daily intraperitoneal administration to adult male rats of a low dose of rotenone (2.75 mg/kg) during weekdays for 21 days. The onset of motor (bradykinesia in the open field test) and coordination deficits (balance in the rotarod and rearing in the open field) occurred after 14 days of exposure to rotenone, linked to a nigrostriatal dopaminergic degeneration and increased accumulation of α-synuclein, which are key features of PD. Moreover, we identified several modifications pre-dating the onset of PD-like motor symptoms, encompassing gastrointestinal alterations and a modified whole-body composition together with olfactory dysfunction and memory and emotional impairments, which were typified by: i) a delayed gastric emptying of liquids (¹³CO₂ analysis), which was evident from the third day of rotenone administration and was aggravated over subsequent days; ii) a loss of total, visceral and subcutaneous body fat and dehydration (bioimpedance spectroscopy); iii) olfactory dysfunction (discrimination test and food buried test). The characterization of this prodrome period in this robust model of PD offers a new window of opportunity to investigate the pathophysiological mechanisms of PD onset and to devise and test novel neuroprotective strategies.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11993,"journal":{"name":"European Journal of Neuroscience","volume":"61 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143380878","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Gamma Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation Has Frequency-Dependent Effects on Human Motor Cortex Plasticity Induced by Theta-Burst Stimulation","authors":"Wei-Yeh Liao,&nbsp;Brodie J. Hand,&nbsp;John Cirillo,&nbsp;Ryoki Sasaki,&nbsp;George M. Opie,&nbsp;Mitchell R. Goldsworthy,&nbsp;John G. Semmler","doi":"10.1111/ejn.70018","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.70018","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Long-term potentiation (LTP)-like plasticity in primary motor cortex (M1) induced by intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) can be enhanced by transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) at a gamma frequency of 70 Hz. Recent evidence suggests that there is some frequency specificity in the effects of tACS on motor function within the midgamma band (60–90 Hz). The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of different tACS frequencies within the gamma band on the neuroplastic response to iTBS. Seventeen healthy young adults performed four experimental sessions, where iTBS was combined with different tACS conditions (60, 75 and 90 Hz, sham) over M1 using a tACS-iTBS costimulation approach. Motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude and short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) were assessed from a hand muscle before and after the intervention using transcranial magnetic stimulation with posterior–anterior (PA) and anterior–posterior (AP) coil orientations. Gamma tACS-iTBS costimulation increased PA and AP MEPs when gamma tACS was applied at 90 Hz, but not at 75 or 60 Hz, compared with sham tACS. PA and AP SICI was reduced by tACS-iTBS costimulation, but this was not influenced by gamma tACS frequency. Gamma tACS can increase LTP-like plasticity when combined with iTBS over M1, with the largest effect observed when tACS was applied at higher gamma frequencies. The functional relevance of targeting higher gamma frequencies within different brain areas and study populations remains to be determined.</p>","PeriodicalId":11993,"journal":{"name":"European Journal of Neuroscience","volume":"61 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/ejn.70018","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143380110","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Galectin-1 Regulates Inflammatory Responses and Promotes Microglial M2 Polarization in Chronic Migraine","authors":"Yue Xiao,&nbsp;Wei Han,&nbsp;Ming Yu,&nbsp;Jianzhong Jiang,&nbsp;Yuanyuan Zhu","doi":"10.1111/ejn.70010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.70010","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Chronic migraine (CM) is a severe and debilitating neurological disorder with an unclear pathophysiology. Galectin-1, a β-galactoside-binding protein, is known for its anti-inflammatory and immune-regulatory effects in various inflammation-related diseases. However, its role in CM has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we analysed data from CM patients and employed a nitroglycerin-induced CM mouse model to explore the potential role of galectin-1. Serum galectin-1 levels were significantly lower in CM patients compared with healthy controls. Additionally, galectin-1 levels were negatively correlated with Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and Headache Impact Test (HIT-6) scores. CM patients also exhibited elevated levels of IL-6 and TNF-α and reduced levels of IL-10. Notably, galectin-1 levels were inversely correlated with IL-6 and TNF-α and positively correlated with IL-10. In the CM mouse model, galectin-1 expression was significantly reduced in the spinal trigeminal nucleus caudalis (Sp5C) region. Supplementation with galectin-1 significantly increased paw and periorbital mechanical thresholds and reduced light aversion and anxiety-like behaviours. Moreover, galectin-1 enhanced microglial morphology, promoted M2 polarization, reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory factors IL-6 and TNF-α and increased levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. Mechanistically, the effects of galectin-1 on microglia may involve the activation of the PI3K/AKT signalling pathway, as evidenced by increased phosphorylation of PI3K and AKT. In summary, our study demonstrates that galectin-1 plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of chronic migraine. Exogenous supplementation of galectin-1 effectively alleviates migraine symptoms and promotes microglial M2 polarization, suggesting that galectin-1 may represent a novel therapeutic target for CM.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11993,"journal":{"name":"European Journal of Neuroscience","volume":"61 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143362647","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Taxonomy of Neuroscientific Strategies Based on Interaction Orders","authors":"Matteo Neri,&nbsp;Andrea Brovelli,&nbsp;Samy Castro,&nbsp;Fausto Fraisopi,&nbsp;Marilyn Gatica,&nbsp;Ruben Herzog,&nbsp;Pedro A. M. Mediano,&nbsp;Ivan Mindlin,&nbsp;Giovanni Petri,&nbsp;Daniel Bor,&nbsp;Fernando E. Rosas,&nbsp;Antonella Tramacere,&nbsp;Mar Estarellas","doi":"10.1111/ejn.16676","DOIUrl":"10.1111/ejn.16676","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>In recent decades, neuroscience has advanced with increasingly sophisticated strategies for recording and analysing brain activity, enabling detailed investigations into the roles of functional units, such as individual neurons, brain regions and their interactions. Recently, new strategies for the investigation of cognitive functions regard the study of higher order interactions—that is, the interactions involving more than two brain regions or neurons. Although methods focusing on individual units and their interactions at various levels offer valuable and often complementary insights, each approach comes with its own set of limitations. In this context, a conceptual map to categorize and locate diverse strategies could be crucial to orient researchers and guide future research directions. To this end, we define the spectrum of orders of interaction, namely, a framework that categorizes the interactions among neurons or brain regions based on the number of elements involved in these interactions. We use a simulation of a toy model and a few case studies to demonstrate the utility and the challenges of the exploration of the spectrum. We conclude by proposing future research directions aimed at enhancing our understanding of brain function and cognition through a more nuanced methodological framework.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11993,"journal":{"name":"European Journal of Neuroscience","volume":"61 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143188760","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}