Cryogenics最新文献

{"title":"Investigation of magnetic spring stiffness characteristics in magnetic resonance linear compressors for pulse tube cryocoolers","authors":"Zhouhang Hu ,&nbsp;Xuan Yu ,&nbsp;Zhenxing Li ,&nbsp;Mingsheng Tang ,&nbsp;Huiming Zou ,&nbsp;Jun Shen","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104287","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104287","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Magnetic resonance linear compressors play a critical role in the miniaturization and reliability enhancement of miniature cryocoolers. In this study, a finite element analysis system is employed to investigate the mechanism of the magnetic spring effect in magnetic resonance linear compressors. Furthermore, the magnetic spring force of the linear compressor was measured through experimental testing. The experimental results are compared with simulation outcomes, validating the reliability of the simulation model. The magnetic spring effect caused by electromagnetic–mechanical coupling in magnetic resonance linear motors is studied through finite element simulation and experimental verification. The results reveal asymmetric stiffness characteristics, stroke dependence, and frequency independence in magnetic spring behavior. Quantitative analysis of stiffness nonlinearity across displacement ranges is conducted via static and dynamic magnetic spring tests. Experimental data demonstrate: under static conditions, magnetic spring stiffness increases from 28.9 N/mm to 37.4 N/mm (an increase of 29.4 %) during compression (0 to +7.4 mm), and from 21.5 N/mm to 34.1 N/mm (an increase of 58.6 %) during expansion (-15 mm to 0 mm). Dynamic conditions show resonant frequency increasing with stroke magnitude, validating displacement-dependent stiffness. At 7 mm stroke, the relative error between theoretical equivalent stiffness (24.6 N/mm) and frequency-scanned measured value (24.5 N/mm) is merely 0.58 %, confirming the feasibility of predicting dynamic stiffness using static test results. Furthermore, the integration of the magnetic resonance linear motor into the pulse tube cryocooler demonstrates the feasibility of applying magnetic resonance linear motors in miniature cryocoolers.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104287"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146024344","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessing non-darcy effects in porous materials: A comparative study of forchheimer and reynolds number criteria","authors":"R.M.A. Spijkers,&nbsp;D.H. Oude Veldhuis,&nbsp;S. Vanapalli","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104278","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104278","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Dry-shippers are cryogenic transport containers designed for the shipment of biomedical samples, in which liquid nitrogen is absorbed in a porous lining to comply with aviation safety regulations. There is a demand for improved lining materials, due to challenges related to cleaning and structural durability. Addressing these challenges and selecting new materials requires a comprehensive understanding of permeability and its accurate characterization. When a dry-shipper is initially at room temperature, charging it with liquid nitrogen causes substantial evaporation. The resulting volumetric expansion, by a factor exceeding 175, leads to a significant increase in gas flow velocity, and the associated viscous drag may influence the wicking behavior of the porous lining. Accurate modeling of this gas flow through porous media requires the incorporation of both the Klinkenberg and Forchheimer corrections, which account for gas slippage and inertial effects, respectively. These effects are typically predicted using the Knudsen and Reynolds numbers. However, our experimental findings demonstrate that both corrections are required, even in conditions where the Forchheimer correction is not predicted by conventional Reynolds number criteria. To investigate this discrepancy, the permeability of a porous lining material was experimentally characterized by measuring the pressure drop over a sample while varying nitrogen gas flow rates. The pressure gradient was modeled using the Darcy-Forchheimer equation, modified to include the Klinkenberg correction. Characteristic material parameters were obtained via curve fitting, using a Runge-Kutta method to integrate the pressure gradient. The analysis yielded an intrinsic permeability of 4.31 <span><math><mo>±</mo></math></span> 0.22 <span><math><msup><mn>10</mn><mrow><mo>−</mo><mn>14</mn></mrow></msup></math></span> <span><math><mrow><msup><mi>m</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow></math></span>, a Forchheimer parameter of 1.58 <span><math><mo>±</mo></math></span> 0.04 <span><math><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>8</mn></msup></math></span> <span><math><mrow><msup><mi>m</mi><mrow><mo>−</mo><mn>1</mn></mrow></msup></mrow></math></span>, and a Klinkenberg parameter of 55.8 <span><math><mo>±</mo></math></span> 2.1 kPa. These results demonstrate that the Forchheimer number is a more reliable indicator of the onset of form drag in porous media than Reynolds number-based criteria, particularly for materials with complex microstructures. This highlights the importance of rigorously assessing inertial effects in porous materials with irregular pore geometries.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104278"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146024346","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Comparison of hybrid Er3Ni/stainless steel screen with HoCu2/stainless steel screen in pulse tube cryocooler as regenerator materials","authors":"Wenting Wu ,&nbsp;Wang Yin ,&nbsp;Hejun Hui ,&nbsp;Kongkuai Ying ,&nbsp;Zhenhua Jiang ,&nbsp;Yinong Wu ,&nbsp;Shaoshuai Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104294","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104294","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A two-stage Stirling-type pulse tube cryocooler (SPTC) can not only provide a cryogenic environment in the liquid hydrogen temperature region for space exploration payloads, but also serves as a precooler to supply pre-stage cooling for Joule-Thomson (JT) cryocoolers. The development of space exploration technology has placed higher requirements on two-stage SPTCs. One of the reasons limiting the performance improvement of two-stage SPTCs is the low regenerator efficiency at low temperatures. Selecting appropriate regenerator materials and filling schemes is an important means to improve the regenerator efficiency. In this paper, the regenerator efficiency of the second regenerator and the cooling performance of two-stage SPTCs with magnetic materials were investigated by simulations and experiments. Simulation results indicate that although magnetic materials lead to higher pressure drop loss, the irreversible heat transfer loss in the regenerator is significantly reduced due to the use of magnetic materials, and the irreversible heat transfer loss with Er₃Ni is lower than that with HoCu₂. When the cooling temperature is 15 K, the proportion of irreversible heat transfer loss in the cold-end PV power with Er₃Ni and HoCu₂ are 36.42% and 42.59%, respectively. Subsequently, a test platform for a thermal-coupled two-stage SPTC was built to test the influence of Er₃Ni and HoCu₂ on the cooling performance in the 10–30 K temperature range. According to experimental results, the cryocooler achieves a no-load temperature of 9.04 K when Er₃Ni is used as the regenerator material, which is lower than the 10.40 K no-load temperature obtained with HoCu₂. Cooling capacities obtained with Er₃Ni and HoCu₂ are 0.70 W and 0.57 W when the cooling temperature is 15 K; and the cooling capacities at 30 K are 2.79 W and 2.76 W, respectively.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104294"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146024420","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental measurement of VL(L)E for R14+R32 binary mixture and theoretical assessment of cryogenic refrigeration performance","authors":"Yunxiao Wang ,&nbsp;Yuqing Zhao ,&nbsp;Shaohua Lv ,&nbsp;Yanxing Zhao ,&nbsp;Xueqiang Dong ,&nbsp;Maoqiong Gong","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104277","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104277","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Mixed refrigerant throttle refrigeration holds significant application potential in space, such as for Martian carbon dioxide freeze-trapping and cryogenic freezers on space stations. These scenarios impose stringent requirements on temperature control precision and temperature uniformity. Mixed refrigerants exhibiting vapor-liquid-liquid equilibrium have fewer degrees of freedom, enabling more precise control over refrigeration temperatures. Furthermore, their phase change process closely approximates isothermal evaporation, resulting in a more uniform temperature distribution. Tetrafluoromethane (R14)+difluoromethane (R32), a nonpolar-polar mixture, is a promising VLLE working fluid, but its practical utilization is limited by scarce experimental phase equilibrium data. In this study, the vapor–liquid (liquid) equilibrium characteristics of the R14+R32 binary mixture were experimentally investigated at 173.150–213.150 K. The experimental data were fitted and the binary interaction parameters were regressed using two thermodynamic models: the Peng-Robinson equation of state combined with the van der Waals mixing rule (PR-vdW), and the PR equation of state combined with the modified Huron-Vidal second-order mixing rule and the nonrandom two-liquid activity coefficient model (PR-MHV2-NRTL). For the PR-vdW model, the maximum average absolute relative deviation of pressure (AARD<em>p</em>) and average absolute deviation of vapor-phase composition (AAD<em>y</em>) were 3.03% and 0.0092, respectively. For the PR-MHV2-NRTL model, the corresponding values were 1.65% and 0.0103. Further investigation was conducted on the refrigeration performance of R14+R32. The results showed that the mixture achieved a maximum exergy efficiency of 44%. This highlights its potential for high-precision cryogenic systems and extraterrestrial applications, such as stratospheric and Martian environments. This work provides the first comprehensive experimental dataset and thermodynamic assessment for the R14+R32 mixture, enabling accurate design of next-generation cryogenic refrigeration systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104277"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145924503","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Optimizing hydrogen adsorption capacity in porous carbon through CNN and SHAP analysis","authors":"Chen Huang ,&nbsp;Junting Zhao ,&nbsp;Yu Zhang ,&nbsp;Linghui Gong","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104291","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104291","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Based on nitrogen adsorption isotherms at 77 K, this study develops a one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) model to predict the hydrogen adsorption capacity of porous carbons. A dataset comprising 859 adsorption data points from 116 porous carbon structures was constructed. The model achieved a high predictive accuracy, with a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.9511 on the test set. Using synthetic isotherms generated via the Langmuir equation, optimal structural parameters were identified, revealing that porous carbons with parameters a = 100 and b = 830 exhibit superior hydrogen uptake below 1 bar. Non-local density functional theory (NLDFT) analysis further demonstrated that pores below 10.25 Å play a critical role in hydrogen adsorption at 77 K. SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis highlighted that only a small subset of structural features—mainly within relative pressure (P/P₀) ranges of 0.08–0.27 and 0.80–0.92—significantly influences hydrogen adsorption. This work provides both a reliable predictive model and interpretable insights into the pore-level mechanisms governing hydrogen storage in porous carbon materials.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104291"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146024419","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Study of the voltage limiting method of combining nonlinear resistors and pulse capacitors for superconducting inductive pulse power supply","authors":"Junpeng Gu ,&nbsp;Haitao Li ,&nbsp;Zhenyu Liu ,&nbsp;Xue Ai ,&nbsp;Shanhui Mi ,&nbsp;Ningze Ma","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104290","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104290","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The inductive pulse power supply based on superconducting energy storage has the advantages of low primary power demand, high energy storage density, and low resistance loss, making it have great application prospects in fields such as electromagnetic propulsion and directional energy equipment. However, how to limit the voltage of the opening switch in a superconducting inductive pulse power supply (SPPS) remains an inherent technical challenge. This study proposes a voltage limiting method for the opening switch using a combination of ZnO nonlinear resistors and pulse capacitors. During the discharge stage of superconducting inductors, pulse capacitors can be used to limit the sudden changes in the voltage of the opening switch, while ZnO nonlinear resistors can be used to limit the maximum voltage of the opening switch. Simulations and experiments were conducted using an SPPS circuit constructed with a high-temperature superconducting pulse power transformer (HTSPPT) to demonstrate the combined voltage limiting method. At the same time, the feasibility of using ZnO nonlinear resistors for voltage limiting in liquid nitrogen environment was verified. The results show that the combination of ZnO nonlinear resistors and pulse capacitors can significantly limit the opening switch voltage in SPPS circuits, and ZnO nonlinear resistors can still maintain stable voltage limiting performance in liquid nitrogen environments.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104290"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146024343","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Properties of filamentary MgB2 superconducting wires commercially produced by ex-situ and in-situ process","authors":"P. Kováč,&nbsp;J. Kováč","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104288","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104288","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Today, km-long MgB₂ wires are commercially produced using the Power-in-Tube (PIT) process; however, commercial companies that also conduct measurements of basic properties often lack more detailed characterizations. Therefore, more detailed studies are usually done by research institutes or universities. We have measured the low-temperature properties of two commercial MgB₂ wires, manufactured by <em>ex-situ</em> and <em>in-situ</em> processes, and compared their behaviour from the point of application. It was demonstrated that a higher critical temperature of 39 K for <em>ex-situ</em> wires provides a larger temperature window for applications. On the other hand, in-situ made wires have higher engineering current densities at lower temperatures and higher magnetic fields. Consequently, <em>ex-situ</em> wires are more suitable for higher working temperatures and low magnetic fields, and <em>in-situ</em> ones for higher magnetic fields and temperatures ≤ 20 K. In addition, lower AC losses are measured for <em>in-situ</em> wire due to the smaller amount of magnetic materials (Ni and Monel) and also the application of short pitch twisting, which is not possible for <em>ex-situ</em> wire.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104288"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146024469","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigation of the levitation and drag force parameters of the electrodynamic maglev based on Halbach array of HTS bulks on aluminium rail","authors":"U.Kemal Ozturk ,&nbsp;Ali Suat Yıldız ,&nbsp;Murat Abdioglu","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104280","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104280","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study aims to investigate the performance parameters of high-temperature superconducting (HTS) bulks and permanent magnets (PMs) as magnetic field sources in electrodynamic suspension (EDS) systems, with the goal of enhancing the currently low magnetic lift force and reducing the high drag force in such systems. A numerical analysis is conducted on an EDS system utilizing Halbach arrays of HTS and PM bulks. The H-formulation within the Partial Differential Equation (PDE) module is employed to simulate the flux-trapping performance of the HTS bulks, with results verified by experimental data from the literature. The lift and drag forces between the arrays and an aluminium rail are investigated using the Rotating Machinery-Magnetic module of COMSOL. It is observed that increasing the width of the central sample in the array results in a higher peak value of the vertical magnetic flux density and a broader peak profile, indicating a more extended effective magnetic field region across the rail surface. The HTS-based system exhibits significantly higher lift force and loading capacity compared to its PM-based counterpart. Specifically, a Halbach array composed of three HTS bulks (10 mm, 70 mm, 10 mm widths; HTS#10-70-10) achieves a better lift force representing a 211.5 % increase over the PM array. Furthermore, the lift-to-drag ratio (LDR) of the HTS array improves by 17.2 %. The results indicate that the HTS arrays offer superior performance in terms of both lift force and energy efficiency, highlighting their potential for enhancing the applicability of HTS-EDS systems in real-scale applications. This study features the advantages of HTS-based systems in achieving higher loading capacities and more efficient operation conditions compared to the PM arrays.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104280"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145975717","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigation of the dual-diameter inertance tube of a pulse tube cryocooler operating at super-high frequencies","authors":"Geyang Li ,&nbsp;Tianshi Feng ,&nbsp;Menglin Liang ,&nbsp;Yanen Li ,&nbsp;Qingjun Tang ,&nbsp;Yuhong Zhang ,&nbsp;Houlei Chen ,&nbsp;Yue Xue Ma","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104293","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2026.104293","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Increasing the operating frequency is a key strategy for the miniaturization of the pulse tube cryocoolers. In the pursuit of high frequency and compact system designs, maintaining the phase relationship between the pressure and mass flow within the regenerator is essential for sustaining the cooling performance of the cryocoolers. However, at super-high operating frequencies, precise control of the phase angle becomes increasingly challenging when using the inertance tube and reservoir as the phase shifter. In this paper, a three-dimensional model of the inertance tube and reservoir was developed to investigate the critical internal flow parameters at super-high frequencies. The mass flow amplitude and the phase angle along the tube were compared for single-diameter and dual-diameter inertance tube configurations at 150 Hz. Experimental validation was conducted to evaluate the impact of these configurations on the pulse tube cryocooler’s performance. The results demonstrate that employing a dual-diameter inertance tube as the phase shifter significantly enhances the cooling performance in super-high frequency cryocoolers.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104293"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146024348","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Prediction of boil-off gas in cryogenic tanks using a multi-zone thermodynamic model: filling height effects","authors":"Min Seok Kim,&nbsp;Min-Seok Kim,&nbsp;Jang Hyun Lee","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104256","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104256","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study presents a comprehensive modelling and validation framework for accurate prediction of boil-off gas (BOG) in open-vent (quasi-isobaric) cryogenic liquid tanks containing LNG, LH₂, or LN₂. A multi-zone thermodynamic model (M–TDM) partitions the tank into vapour, interfacial, and liquid zones and couples them through a thermal-resistance network that resolves zone-specific, time-varying heat ingress as the instantaneous filling height evolves.</div><div>Whereas conventional TDM models estimate BOG with emphasis on total heat input and latent heat, the proposed M–TDM provides a more detailed treatment by explicitly modelling convective heat-transfer coefficients and effective contact areas, and by decomposing heat ingress into wall–to–liquid, wall–to–vapour, and interfacial components.</div><div>To verify the model’s predictive capability, experimental validation was conducted under open-vent operation using a horizontal Type-C LN₂ tank at three initial filling ratios (50%, 65%, and 80%), allowing quantitative comparison of time-dependent BOG rates. The M–TDM accurately reproduces the measured BOG trends with average errors below 5.4%, while achieving substantial computational efficiency—reducing the runtime from approximately 2.5 h (as required by SINDA/FLUINT) to about 10 s.</div><div>In particular, the results highlight that BOG generation is more strongly governed by the evolving wetted surface area and interfacial heat-transfer dynamics than by the initial fill level alone, offering new physical insights into cryogenic tank behavior. These findings demonstrate that the M–TDM, when combined with experimental validation and physical interpretation of filling-height effects, serves not merely as a numerical tool but as a physically grounded, experimentally supported methodology for insulation design, BOG management, and cryogenic system optimization.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104256"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146074615","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}