Evolving Earth最新文献

{"title":"Late Palaeozoic brachiopod diversity: global vs regional trends","authors":"Marco Viaretti ,&nbsp;Giovanni Muttoni ,&nbsp;Lucia Angiolini","doi":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100145","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100145","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The study of biodiversity during the late Palaeozoic can provide useful insights into the evolution of the biosphere during dramatic climate and environmental changes such as the Late Palaeozoic Ice Age and the end-Permian hothouse. Here, we present a genus-by stage-level analysis of brachiopod diversity through the late Palaeozoic, using datasets obtained from three major palaeontological databases – Paleobiology Database, Geobiodiversity Database and Sepkowski's Online Genus Database – from a global to a regional scale. Our analysis is grounded in original palaeogeographic reconstructions that constrain the co-evolution of organisms and the environment in the late Palaeozoic, showing that biodiversity evolved at different rates across both temporal and spatial scales. The onset of the LPIA does not appear to have directly influenced global brachiopod diversity, though a nadir in brachiopod diversity is recorded in the Serpukhovian-Kasimovian. The demise of LPIA affected regional records in Gondwanan and peri-Gondwanan areas, and it may also have had a global impact as recorded by an increase in time-standardized genus richness, while climate warming and plate reorganization from Pangaea-B to Pangaea-A, the opening of the Neo-Tethys, and the increase in low-latitude margin availability may have contributed to the Guadalupian diversity peak, which is evident in nearly all the analysed datasets. Comparisons among the three databases reveal discrepancies in diversity, origination, and extinction patterns—highlighting regional biases, data gaps, and dataset errors—and suggest that while occurrence-based data are more reliable for regional diversity estimates, stratigraphic range-based data better capture broad global trends, albeit with inherent limitations.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100516,"journal":{"name":"Evolving Earth","volume":"4 ","pages":"Article 100145"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148184149","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Synergistic astronomical-volcanic controls on coal accumulation in the Late Permian coal measures of western Guizhou","authors":"Tianyang Yang,&nbsp;Yulin Shen,&nbsp;Jian Shen,&nbsp;Tengyu Wang,&nbsp;Ya Zhao,&nbsp;Xiwei Mu,&nbsp;Fan Jiang","doi":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100154","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100154","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Multiple coal seams within the Upper Permian succession of western Guizhou exhibit pronounced vertical cyclicity and are interbedded with volcanic ash-bearing layers, suggesting developmental patterns potentially linked to coupled astronomical-volcanic forcing. This study investigates the controls of astronomical orbital forcing and synsedimentary volcanism (constrained by zircon geochronology) on coal seam development in the Late Permian coal-bearing strata of western Guizhou. Results indicate that most coal seams accumulated during periods of high eccentricity. During high eccentricity intervals, the amplification of precession-driven seasonal insolation contrasts intensified monsoon precipitation, promoting humid conditions. Meanwhile, adequate accommodation allowed the accumulation and preservation of terrestrial vegetation. Geochemical and sedimentological analyses reveal that volcanic ash-bearing layers primarily occur as floors or partings of coal seams. Volcanic activity likely enhanced regional nutrient availability, which in turn may have promoted plant growth and peat accumulation. Gases, aerosols, and pyroclastic materials released by volcanic eruptions could have further stimulated plant growth through climate modification and nutrient supply. Therefore, the development of most coal seams in this region was likely co-controlled by astronomical forcing and volcanic activity. In contrast, shifts in astronomical orbital phases (eccentricity) could alter sedimentary environments by modulating climate and sea-level, thereby terminating sustained peat accumulation. Collectively, these findings demonstrate the response of coal accumulation to astronomical forcing and volcanic activity over geological timescales.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100516,"journal":{"name":"Evolving Earth","volume":"4 ","pages":"Article 100154"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148523398","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reevaluation of the Panjang fault as a potential seismic source in eastern Lampung, Indonesia: Insights from integrated gravity, seismicity, and morphotectonic analyses","authors":"Luhut Pardamean Siringoringo,&nbsp;Muhammad Raksa Resturulloh,&nbsp;Randhy Trianggara,&nbsp;Raja Christodogabe Siallagan","doi":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100169","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100169","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Eastern Lampung occupies a complex back-arc tectonic setting, yet its seismic potential remains insufficiently constrained. This study investigates the Panjang Fault, a previously underrepresented Quaternary structure in eastern Lampung, through an integrated analysis of Bouguer gravity anomalies, seismicity, focal mechanisms, morphotectonic indices, and published GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) observations. The results reveal a segmented normal-fault system expressed by gravity lineaments, shallow seismicity, and fault-controlled drainage morphology. Low bifurcation ratios (Rb) and locally high Stream Length–Gradient index (SL) indices provide geomorphic evidence of tectonic control on drainage development, while published GNSS observations indicate ongoing crustal deformation within the broader Lampung–Sunda Strait region. The GNSS data is consistent with the extensional tectonic framework inferred from the geological, geophysical, and geomorphological data. Empirical scaling based on fault-segment lengths of 20–60 km yields potential earthquake magnitudes of approximately Mw 6.57–7.20. The findings demonstrate that the back-arc position of the Panjang Fault does not necessarily imply low seismic hazard and highlights the need to consider this structure in future seismic source models and regional hazard assessments. The study provides an integrated framework for recognizing potentially active back-arc faults and improving seismic risk assessment in eastern Lampung.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100516,"journal":{"name":"Evolving Earth","volume":"4 ","pages":"Article 100169"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149050533","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evaluation of spatio-temporal variability of groundwater quality for irrigational suitability and its relation with climatological parameters in the Pondicherry region, India","authors":"Reshma Susan Jacob,&nbsp;V.S. Joji,&nbsp;M. Sivakumar,&nbsp;A.S. Divya","doi":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100165","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100165","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Groundwater quality in coastal aquifers is increasingly threatened by climate variability, intensive abstraction, and saline intrusion, directly affecting agricultural sustainability. This study evaluates the spatio-temporal variability of groundwater quality for irrigation and its relationship with climatological parameters in the Pondicherry coastal region, southeast India. Seventy groundwater samples were collected during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons of 2023 and analyzed for major physico-chemical parameters. Irrigation suitability was assessed using standard indices, including Sodium Adsorption Ratio, Percent Sodium, Residual Sodium Carbonate, Magnesium Ratio, Kelley's Index, and Permeability Index, supported by Wilcox and U.S. Salinity Laboratory classifications. Spatial distribution maps were generated using geographic information system techniques, and long-term rainfall and temperature data (2010–2022) were correlated with groundwater quality indicators.</div><div>The groundwater chemistry is dominated by sodium–chloride and calcium–bicarbonate facies, reflecting the combined influence of seawater intrusion, carbonate weathering, and recharge processes. Most groundwater samples (approximately 80–85%) are suitable for irrigation in both seasons; however, persistent salinity and sodium hazards were identified in coastal locations such as Muthialpet, Thengaithittu, and Kirumampakkam. POM conditions show improved groundwater quality due to recharge-induced dilution. A strong negative correlation between rainfall and electrical conductivity, and a positive correlation between temperature and salinity, demonstrate the controlling influence of climatic variability on groundwater chemistry.</div><div>The results highlight that seasonal recharge enhances irrigation suitability, whereas over-extraction and marine intrusion degrade groundwater quality in coastal aquifers. The integrated hydrochemical, spatial, and climatological approach provides a robust framework for sustainable groundwater management in climate-sensitive coastal regions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100516,"journal":{"name":"Evolving Earth","volume":"4 ","pages":"Article 100165"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148935095","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"High-resolution carbon isotope stratigraphy from the Mid-Cenomanian Event to the onset of OAE2 in the Moghal Kot section, northwestern Pakistan","authors":"Akise Kawazu,&nbsp;Akihiro Kano,&nbsp;Suleman Khan,&nbsp;Samiullah Khan,&nbsp;Syed Muhammad Mumtaz Ali Bukhari,&nbsp;Haamid Salah Ud Din,&nbsp;Ryosuke Saito","doi":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100170","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100170","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Oceanic Anoxic Event 2 (OAE2) and the preceding Mid-Cenomanian Event (MCE) represent major perturbations of the global carbon cycle during the mid-Cretaceous. However, high-resolution carbonate carbon and oxygen isotope records remain scarce from the eastern Tethys region and the northwestern Indian Plate margin. Here, we present a high-resolution carbonate carbon and oxygen isotope stratigraphy from the Moghal Kot area (northwestern Pakistan), based on 877 samples collected at ∼3 cm spacing across a ∼26.3 m thick Cenomanian–Turonian succession of the Parh Formation. The δ¹³C record reveals a distinct positive carbon isotope excursion between 2.07 and 4.83 m, rising from ∼1.5‰ to ∼2.5‰ and then returning to ∼2.0‰, which is interpreted as the MCE. The second major positive δ¹³C shift begins at ∼18.39 m, near the disappearance level of <em>Rotalipora cushmani</em> at the base of a black shale unit. Across the carbonate-poor interval around 19–20 m, the isotope record becomes discontinuous, but the δ¹³C values reach ∼3.3‰ near 20 m and subsequently decline to ∼2.0‰ by ∼21 m. This positive shift is interpreted to mark the probable onset of OAE2, although the characteristic OAE2 plateau is not fully preserved within the studied interval. Notably, the interval between the termination of the MCE and the onset of OAE2 exhibits a gradual negative δ¹³C trend, contrasting with the globally recognized long-term positive trend during the late Cenomanian. This regional deviation may reflect paleoceanographic modulation of the global carbon cycle in the eastern Tethys, including differences in water-mass circulation, organic carbon burial efficiency, or volcanic carbon input. Our results provide a high-resolution chemostratigraphic framework for the Moghal Kot section and establish an important reference record for understanding mid-Cretaceous carbon-cycle dynamics along the northwestern Indian Plate margin.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100516,"journal":{"name":"Evolving Earth","volume":"4 ","pages":"Article 100170"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148995287","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Spatial and seasonal variability of major element distribution from a tropical marine biosphere reserve of India","authors":"Rakhil Dev,&nbsp;Babu Nallusamy,&nbsp;Mohammed Noohu Nazeer,&nbsp;Punnakkal Hari Praved,&nbsp;Reji Srinivas","doi":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100166","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100166","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Seasonal variations in major element composition influence biogeochemical processes in coastal ecosystems, yet such variations across multiple habitats remain understudied in the coastal sediments of the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve. The present study aims to provide a comprehensive seasonal trend in major element concentrations from Hare Island of the Mandapam group of islands. Twenty-four surface sediment samples were collected during pre-monsoon, monsoon and post monsoon season and the geochemical distribution of major elements identified Si, Ti, Al, Mn, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K, P and S in the sediments. Ca and Si dominate every season with all other major elements showing seasonal variability. The average geochemical normalization values indicate that the Si, Ca, Mg and Na remain enriched in every season, and sulfur enrichment intensifies during the monsoon and post-monsoon. The aluminium‐normalised concentrations of most major elements closely mirror their enrichment factor trends. The highest values were reported on the island's landward side, dominated by seagrass, and in the vicinity of the fisher's passage. Elevated TiO₂/Al₂O₃ ratios during the monsoon season suggest heavy mineral enrichment in silty-sandy substrates, which we interpret as reflecting fluvial input and beach-placer processes. A wide range of SiO₂/Al₂O₃ values, with peaks in coral and sandy habitats, suggests pronounced quartz maturation. These patterns suggest that a targeted monitoring programme may be warranted in these protected areas, particularly during the monsoon and post-monsoon periods when land runoff and inflow from the southern Gulf of Mannar are likely higher.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100516,"journal":{"name":"Evolving Earth","volume":"4 ","pages":"Article 100166"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148995389","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessing environmental quality and livelihood sustainability in the Indian Sundarban under climate variability","authors":"Ulfat Khan,&nbsp;Muktadar Hossain,&nbsp;Abhishek Banerjee","doi":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100172","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100172","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Sundarban deltaic ecosystem is highly vulnerable to environmental degradation and livelihood insecurity related to weaknesses in ecological conditions and dependence on natural resources. The study examines the impact of the air, water, soil and acoustic quality variables in Gosaba block on livelihood dynamics and sustainable development of the region. Particulate pollution is identified as a serious concern in the Air Quality Index, with the concentration of PM_2.5 in the range of 22 – 68 μg m⁻³, and PM₁₀ in the range of 26 – 74 μg m⁻³. Biomass burning, transport emissions and circulation are associated with high particles. Water bodies with TDS content between 300 and 800 mg L⁻¹ are considered as moderately saline due to tidal intrusion and groundwater mineralization. The contribution from biomass fuel use and domestic combustion is confirmed by the presence of formaldehyde (0.001-0.07 mg/L) and TVOC (0.01-0.063 mg m⁻³). The ambient noise level in the residential areas is 38 – 88 dB, and sometimes exceeds normal limits. Agriculture, fisheries and mangroves dependent livelihoods are greatly affected by environmental stress. Poor quality particulate matter and high-water salinity reduce agricultural productivity, whereas degradation contributes to livelihood vulnerability and migration. According to the regression model, environmental quality plays a significant role in influencing diversification of livelihoods in the Indian Sundarban. The findings indicate that the livelihood diversification and adaptive capacity of the environmentally stable regions (Pakhiralay, Dobaki, Sadhpur) are comparatively higher than the other regions. Understanding of integrated ecosystem-based management, livelihood diversification and climate-resilient infrastructure are the key elements for sustainable development.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100516,"journal":{"name":"Evolving Earth","volume":"4 ","pages":"Article 100172"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149140702","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Tectonic significance of meso-microscopic porphyritic granitic structures along Phulad shear zone, Rajasthan, NW India","authors":"Alip Roy ,&nbsp;Sadhana M. Chatterjee ,&nbsp;Ayan Kumar Sarkar ,&nbsp;Anirban Manna","doi":"10.1016/j.eve.2025.100096","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.eve.2025.100096","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Phulad Shear Zone (PSZ) in northwestern India is a major crustal-scale transpressional structure striking NE-SW, which separates the South Delhi Fold Belt (SDFB) to the east from the Marwar Craton to the west. Although several porphyritic granites, traditionally called “Erinpura Granite,” are reported adjacent to the PSZ, their relationship to deformation and tectonic events remains debated. This study combines detailed field observations, mesoscopic and microscopic structural analyses, and Fractal Dimension Analysis (FDA) to clarify the tectonic evolution of the granites near the PSZ. Two distinct granitic bodies are identified: (<em>i</em>) the Megacrystic Granite (MG) to the west and (<em>ii</em>) the Phulad Granite (PG) within and near the PSZ. The MG preserves an early foliation (S1_MG) that predates PSZ shearing and shows signs of being fully crystallized and tectonically rigid during PSZ deformation. These features, along with existing geochronological data, suggest that the MG is a pre-tectonic granite forming part of the stable footwall of the Marwar Craton. Conversely, the PG displays both magmatic and solid-state foliations aligned with the mylonitic fabric of the PSZ, indicating syn-tectonic emplacement during shearing (820-810 Ma). FDA findings support the variation in strain intensity and deformation conditions between these two granite units. Overall, the results show that suturing along the PSZ occurs after the emplacement of MG and that PG was emplaced during active transpressional deformation. Therefore, MG serves as a pre-tectonic granite associated with the Marwar Craton, while PG is a syn-tectonic granite linked to the PSZ suturing event.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100516,"journal":{"name":"Evolving Earth","volume":"4 ","pages":"Article 100096"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145841676","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Flood susceptibility mapping in the tropical river basinof central Kerala, India, using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and geospatial techniques","authors":"Ajayakumar Appukuttan ,&nbsp;Kavya S. Kutty ,&nbsp;Rajesh Reghunath ,&nbsp;Vineetha P","doi":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100105","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100105","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Floods remain one of the most severe hydro-meteorological hazards globally, often exacerbated by rapid land-use change, geomorphic alterations, and intense rainfall in tropical regions. The Karuvannur River Basin (KRB) in central Kerala, India, has experienced frequent flood events, yet a systematic, geospatially integrated flood susceptibility assessment has been lacking. This study applies the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) coupled with Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques to develop a flood susceptibility map that captures the spatial variability of flood-prone zones based on geomorphological, hydrological, and land surface parameters. A total of nine environmental variables, including slope, drainage density, land use/land cover (LULC), soil texture, and the Topographic Wetness Index (TWI), were derived from SRTM DEM, Landsat 9 OLI, Survey of India toposheets, and ancillary soil data. Model validation was carried out using National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) flood inundation data, and the predictive performance was evaluated using the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve. The model achieved a high Area Under the Curve (AUC) value of 0.945, indicating excellent predictive accuracy. The AHP consistency ratio was 0.02, confirming the logical consistency of the assigned weights. The results indicate that approximately 570.38 km² (54.9 % of the basin) fall under high and very high flood susceptibility zones, predominantly in the central and western floodplains. The study provides critical spatial insights for flood risk mitigation, landscape resilience planning, and geomorphologically informed infrastructure development, offering a replicable model for flood-prone tropical river basins.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100516,"journal":{"name":"Evolving Earth","volume":"4 ","pages":"Article 100105"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145927001","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Multi-spectral and multi-temporal settlement footprint-derived pixel-level analytical approach to the evolution of building morphology in the Haldia urban-industrial region, India","authors":"Bikash Das,&nbsp;Janki Prasad","doi":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100146","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.eve.2026.100146","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Rapid urban expansion within port-led industrial corridors has heightened the need for fine-scale analytical frameworks that capture structural transformations beyond conventional land-use/land-cover approaches. Satellite-based investigations of urban building morphology at the pixel level remain limited in the Global South. This study analyzes the urban morphological evolution of the Haldia urban-industrial region in India by integrating multi-sensor datasets, including the Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL), World Settlement Footprint (WSF, Evolution, and WSF-3D), and Open Building Footprint (OBF). Pixel-level statistical footprint descriptors and multi-temporal intensity indices were derived using Google Earth Engine and GIS platforms. GHSL intensity values reveal strong spatial heterogeneity (min = 0, max &gt;8× mean; Coefficient of Variation/CV = 212.75%), indicating pronounced industrial dominance and uneven structural distribution. OBF analysis shows high footprint variability (FVC = 167.3%) and substantial block regularity (BRR = 0.72), reflecting planned residential and industrial geometries. The Temporal OBF assessment (2016-2023) demonstrates declining spatial dispersion (CV = 187.34% to 142.61%) and reduced high-low ratio contrast (HLR = 50.96 to 34.57), suggesting increasing spatial consolidation. WSF analysis (2015-2019) indicates marginal mean intensification (Δ Mean = +1.25) and low intensity shift index (ISI = 0.016), confirming morphological stability in mature urban cores (CSR &gt;0.90). WSF-3D further reveals strong structural stratification with high volumetric variability (CV = 193%), mean building height of 48.20 m, mean built-up area of 1059.31 m², mean building volume of 7221.8 m³, and average building fraction of 15.25%, benchmarked using cross-dataset consistency analysis, Local Climate Zone (LCZ), GHSL settlement morphology, WSF-3D structural metrics, and field-based observations, confirming strong structural coherence across datasets that identify Haldia as a distinctive linear-industrial morphological archetype characterized by spatial consolidation, volumetric intensification, and persistent industrial-urban coupling.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100516,"journal":{"name":"Evolving Earth","volume":"4 ","pages":"Article 100146"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148523392","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}