Deep Underground Science and Engineering最新文献

{"title":"Real-time monitoring of tunnel structures using digital twin and artificial intelligence: A short overview","authors":"Mohammad Afrazi,&nbsp;Danial Jahed Armaghani,&nbsp;Hossein Afrazi,&nbsp;Hadi Fattahi,&nbsp;Pijush Samui","doi":"10.1002/dug2.70029","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/dug2.70029","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Tunnels are essential components of contemporary infrastructure, yet guaranteeing their safety, longevity, and efficiency remains a persistent challenge. Recent breakthroughs in artificial intelligence (AI) and digital twin (DT) technology provide innovative solutions for the real-time monitoring of tunnel systems, suggesting proactive maintenance tactics and improved safety protocols. This review paper offers a comprehensive examination of the application of AI and DT methodologies in tunnel surveillance. We explore the core concepts of AI and DT and their applicability to structural monitoring, encompassing machine learning, computer vision, and sensor integration. Through the utilization of these AI-powered technologies, engineers are equipped with unparalleled insights into the state and behavior of tunnels, facilitating the early identification of irregularities and the optimization of maintenance timelines. We discuss the array of AI techniques utilized for the immediate monitoring of tunnel systems, emphasizing their foundations, benefits, and practical uses. Numerous studies have showcased the effectiveness and adaptability of AI-based monitoring systems in various tunnel settings. Moreover, we address the hurdles and constraints inherent in AI and DT methodologies and suggest strategies for overcoming them, such as data augmentation, interpretable AI, edge computing, and continuous monitoring. Ultimately, the incorporation of AI and DT technologies into tunnel surveillance signifies a paradigm shift, offering substantial advantages over conventional techniques. By adopting AI-driven monitoring systems, tunnel operators can augment safety, prolong the lifespan of infrastructure, and decrease operational expenses, molding the future of subterranean infrastructure management.</p>","PeriodicalId":100363,"journal":{"name":"Deep Underground Science and Engineering","volume":"5 2","pages":"315-330"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/dug2.70029","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148325055","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical investigation on the influence of mesoscopic deformation on contact area and hydraulic aperture to fracture seepage","authors":"Chenghao Han,&nbsp;Yuanlin Bai,&nbsp;Weijie Zhang,&nbsp;Jicheng Zhang,&nbsp;Hongfa Ma,&nbsp;Weiye Li","doi":"10.1002/dug2.70028","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/dug2.70028","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Fluid flow through a single fracture is commonly described by the cubic law. However, deviations from this model are expected because natural fracture surfaces are rough and in contact with each other in discrete regions. In this study, the interactions between fracture closure, contact area, and hydraulic characterization of mesoscopic-scale rough fractures were investigated. First, natural-splitting fractures induced by Brazilian splitting were generated and digitally reproduced using a three-dimensional scanner. The distribution characterization of the initial mechanical fracture apertures was described, and the variation in fracture contact area during fracture closure was evaluated. Second, numerical simulations of fluid flow between rough surfaces were conducted, and the Stokes equations were solved. The results reveal that the hydraulic aperture underwent three stages. When the contact area was less than 0.34%, changes in the hydraulic aperture resulted in flow rate changes that were consistent with the cubic law. When the contact area was between 0.34% and 14.41%, the hydraulic aperture gradually deviated from the cubic law and fell below the mean fracture aperture. At this stage, the hydraulic aperture should be fully considered rather than the mean fracture aperture. When the contact area exceeds 14.41%, although the mechanical fracture decreases with increasing strain, the influence of the contact area on the hydraulic aperture gradually diminishes. This is because the fractures contain less fluid, and the hydraulic aperture approaches the minimum. Finally, the relationship between mechanical and hydraulic aperture strains was established, improving geological engineering applications that account for fracture deformation.</p>","PeriodicalId":100363,"journal":{"name":"Deep Underground Science and Engineering","volume":"5 2","pages":"567-580"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/dug2.70028","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148324246","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Recent advancements and emerging challenges in deep underground engineering","authors":"Jianguo Wang,&nbsp;Chunfai Leung","doi":"10.1002/dug2.70105","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/dug2.70105","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Deep Underground Science and Engineering&lt;/i&gt; (DUSE) is pleased to present this issue, highlighting recent advancements and emerging challenges in the field of deep underground engineering. This issue comprises 18 high-quality articles, covering a broad range of topics from deep resource extraction and underground space construction to rock mechanics behavior and disaster prevention. The collection reflects the current depth and diversity of research in deep underground science and engineering.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;In recent years, as shallow resources have become increasingly depleted, the development and utilization of deep underground resources have emerged as a critical focus of global energy and engineering efforts. Deep rock masses are subjected to high in-situ stresses, complex geological structures, and multi-physical coupling effects. These pose unprecedented challenges to engineering safety and resource recovery efficiency. How to achieve safe, efficient, and intelligent exploitation of deep resources has thus become a central concern for both academia and industry.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;This issue comprises two review articles and 16 research articles. The two review articles address real-time monitoring of tunnel structures (“Real-time monitoring of tunnel structures using digital twin and artificial intelligence: A short overview,” DOI: 10.1002/dug2.70029) and rockburst prediction and prevention in underground excavation (“A review on rockburst prediction and prevention to shape an ontology-based framework for better decision-making for underground excavations,” DOI: 10.1002/dug2.70034).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The advancements presented in this issue reflect several emerging trends in deep underground science and engineering. First, the increasing integration of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and digital twin technologies into traditional geomechanics analysis is transforming how researchers predict rock failure, optimize excavation design, and monitor infrastructure health in real time. Second, there is a growing emphasis on multi-physical and multi-scale coupling problems, where thermal-hydraulic-mechanical-chemical interactions are considered together, particularly in areas such as deep geothermal energy extraction, underground energy storage, and geological disposal of nuclear waste. Third, the shift toward intelligent and automated construction methods—including water-jet-assisted cutting, fluidized pipeline transport, and smart shield tunneling—is becoming increasingly evident, especially in deep, complex geological conditions. Fourth, the influence of geological uncertainty and spatial variability on engineering design and risk assessment is receiving greater attention, as reflected in the growing use of stochastic and probabilistic methods. Finally, the sustainable development of deep underground space, including its long-term stability and environmental impact, is emerging as a critical research frontier.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;DUSE is now ranked JCR Q1 and Xinrui T1 foll","PeriodicalId":100363,"journal":{"name":"Deep Underground Science and Engineering","volume":"5 2","pages":"313-314"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/dug2.70105","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148324885","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Random finite element analysis on ground subsidence caused by tunnel excavation in karst regions with spatial variable soil","authors":"Zhenghong Su,&nbsp;Yong Fu,&nbsp;Miaomiao Sun,&nbsp;Kailin Ding,&nbsp;Ying Zhao","doi":"10.1002/dug2.70039","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/dug2.70039","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The construction of tunnels inevitably leads to ground subsidence, while surface collapses caused by caverns during excavation can result in significant financial losses. However, previous research on tunnel excavation behavior in karst areas has predominantly assumed uniform soil strength, neglecting the geological uncertainty arising from soil spatial variability and rarely discussing the combined effects of soil variability and geological construction conditions. Therefore, this study conducted a series of random finite element analyses to investigate ground subsidence during tunnel excavation in karst cave areas, considering the combined effects of different karst cave distances and sizes as well as soil spatial variability. It was found that shorter distances between the cavern and the tunnel resulted in greater shifts in subsided trench toward the sides of the cavern. Furthermore, larger cavern diameters amplified the effect of geological variability on soils, leading to increased dispersion of maximum ground subsidence. Ground subsistence also showed sensitivity to changes in soil modulus with the coefficient of variation (<i>COV</i>). Neglecting cave influences could potentially underestimate failure probabilities. Additionally, three patterns for surface subsidence were presented based on different geological conditions. Finally, this study proposed a modified Peck formula to predict ground subsidence during tunnel excavation considering the combined effects of karst cave and soil spatial variability, which may enhance current design methods for tunnel engineering.</p>","PeriodicalId":100363,"journal":{"name":"Deep Underground Science and Engineering","volume":"5 2","pages":"615-632"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/dug2.70039","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148324094","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Rockburst prediction based on data preprocessing and hyperband-RNN-DNN","authors":"Yong Fan,&nbsp;Chenxi Yin,&nbsp;Guangdong Yang,&nbsp;Shengyong Ding,&nbsp;Bin Tian","doi":"10.1002/dug2.70021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/dug2.70021","url":null,"abstract":"<p>A data preprocessing workflow is proposed to address key challenges in rockburst data analysis, including dimensionality differences among various sample features, variations in data values within the same feature, missing data, poor data consistency, and sample class imbalance. The workflow is divided into four steps. Each step introduces multiple algorithms, which are sequentially combined according to the order of the four steps. Then, these coupled algorithms are utilized to preprocess the rockburst data set. The rockburst data set contains 459 samples, and the maximum tangential stress (<i>MTS</i>), the uniaxial compressive strength (<i>UCS</i>), the uniaxial tensile strength (<i>UTS</i>), the elastic strain energy index (<i>WET</i>), the rock stress factor (<i>SCF</i>), and the rock brittleness coefficient (<i>B</i>) are selected as the feature parameters. Subsequently, three architectures, Deep Neural Network (DNN), Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), and Recurrent Neural Network (RNN), are used to evaluate the data sets processed by different coupled algorithms. The hyperband algorithm is introduced to optimize the hyperparameters of the RNN model, and the prediction accuracy of different architectures is compared between the RNN model with dense layers and without dense layers. Finally, a rockburst prediction model based on data preprocessing and the Hyperband-DNN model is developed. The prediction results show that data preprocessing can significantly improve the model prediction accuracy; the model architecture with the highest prediction accuracy can be found quickly using the hyperband algorithm; and adding the dense layer can improve the stability and prediction accuracy of the model.</p>","PeriodicalId":100363,"journal":{"name":"Deep Underground Science and Engineering","volume":"5 2","pages":"446-464"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/dug2.70021","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148324150","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Temperature-dependent shear behavior and constitutive model of the rock–concrete interface","authors":"Hongbin Chen,&nbsp;Yujing Jiang,&nbsp;Rui Pan,&nbsp;Bin Wang,&nbsp;Sunhao Zhang,&nbsp;Jinge Zhang,&nbsp;Xianzhuang Ma","doi":"10.1002/dug2.70032","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/dug2.70032","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Shear tests were conducted at a shear rate of 1 mm/min and a shear displacement of 10 mm to investigate the effect of temperature on the shear behavior of the rock–concrete interface, with the aim of revealing the interaction between the surrounding rock and the lining during tunnel fires. The experimental results obtained several key findings: The mechanical properties of rock and concrete deteriorated with temperature. The mass loss rate of rock was 1.28%, with a decrease in compressive strength of 22.77%. The mass loss rate of concrete was 7.79%, with a decrease in strength of 33.27%. Concrete is more sensitive to temperature than rock under the experimental conditions. As the temperature rose, the shear fracture surface gradually shifted from within the concrete to the rock–concrete interface. Simultaneously, compaction shear displacement and peak shear displacement increased, while peak shear stress, shear stiffness and interface fracture energy decreased. In particular, the increase in compaction shear displacement and the decrease in shear stiffness were characteristic of the shear behavior of the rock–concrete interface at elevated temperatures. Subsequently, a temperature-dependent shear constitutive model of the rock–concrete interface, based on damage mechanics and statistical theory, was developed to eliminate reliance on specific experimental variables and serve as a reference for similar situations beyond the experimental conditions. This study contributes to advancing our understanding of the shear behavior of the rock–concrete interface at elevated temperatures.</p>","PeriodicalId":100363,"journal":{"name":"Deep Underground Science and Engineering","volume":"5 2","pages":"350-366"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/dug2.70032","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148324308","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Failure characteristics and the energy criterion of rock with a through-going joint under true-triaxial unloading conditions: Insights from the DEM model","authors":"Fei Liu,&nbsp;Changhui Liang,&nbsp;Sijia Liu,&nbsp;Yongjun Zhang,&nbsp;Luo Wang","doi":"10.1002/dug2.70023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/dug2.70023","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Excavation unloading damages rock masses, with preferential failure along geological defects in rock engineering, which may induce catastrophe geological hazards. It is important to study the failure of jointed rock under true-triaxial unloading conditions. 3D DEM true-triaxial unloading modeling tests on rock with through-going joint considering the contributing factors, that is, the joint inclination, the initial confining pressure, and the unloading point, were conducted to study the rock mechanical properties, cracking behaviors, and failure characteristics. Six typical rock failure modes were summarized based on the development of main cracks, and the associated cracking mechanisms were studied by analysis of the ratio of tensile crack to shear crack. An energy criterion determining whether unloading-induced rock failure occurs instantaneously was proposed by comparing the accumulated elastic strain energy at the unloading point in true-triaxial unloading simulations with the limit elastic strain energy stored in rocks in biaxial compression modeling tests. Furthermore, the strength characteristics and applicability of the Mogi–Coulomb failure criterion in describing the failure of specimens with through-going joint under true-triaxial unloading conditions were studied. This study provides some new insights into true-triaxial unloading-induced failure of jointed rock, which may be valuable for revealing the mechanism of rock instabilities influenced by geological defects in deep excavations.</p>","PeriodicalId":100363,"journal":{"name":"Deep Underground Science and Engineering","volume":"5 2","pages":"465-481"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/dug2.70023","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148324149","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Geological and geotechnical challenges on the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe and their impact on hardrock pillar design","authors":"Tawanda Zvarivadza,&nbsp;Hendrik Grobler,&nbsp;Moshood Onifade,&nbsp;Manoj Khandelwal","doi":"10.1002/dug2.70024","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/dug2.70024","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The Great Dyke of Zimbabwe is a major geological formation renowned for its rich deposits of platinum group metals. This study addresses the geological and geotechnical challenges faced during mining on the Great Dyke, focusing on the implications for hardrock pillar design. The Great Dyke's geological complexity includes diverse rock types—dunites, harzburgites, pyroxenites, and norites—and notable structural features like joints, faults, and shear zones. These factors complicate the stability of underground workings. Traditional empirical methods and numerical modeling are used in pillar design but fall short in capturing the full complexity of the Great Dyke. The study highlights the absence of advanced methods such as machine learning (ML), artificial intelligence (AI), and geostatistical techniques in current pillar design practices. Incorporating these methods could significantly enhance pillar stability. Geostatistical techniques like kriging offer detailed estimates of rock quality and quantify prediction uncertainty, while ML and AI can analyze extensive data sets to uncover patterns and improve predictions. Integration of real-time data from Industrial Internet of Things sensors into these models allows for dynamic updates and better risk management. Continuous monitoring and adaptive design are essential for maintaining stability in this challenging geological environment. The study's findings aim to guide future mining practices, ensuring enhanced safety and efficiency on the Great Dyke.</p>","PeriodicalId":100363,"journal":{"name":"Deep Underground Science and Engineering","volume":"5 2","pages":"506-538"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/dug2.70024","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148324241","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigation of the failure characteristics of fissure tunnels under dynamic and static combinations","authors":"Peng Ying,&nbsp;Yu Ying,&nbsp;Xiaohan Li,&nbsp;Han Zhao,&nbsp;Kewei Yu,&nbsp;Zheming Zhu,&nbsp;Lei Zhou,&nbsp;Xibin Li","doi":"10.1002/dug2.70013","DOIUrl":"10.1002/dug2.70013","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Considering the expansion of mining operations into increasingly deeper areas, it is imperative to assess the influence of dynamic disturbance loads on the security of deep tunnels. Here, via AUTODYN finite difference software, a numerical analysis of the fracture characteristics of a fractured tunnel was employed under the coupled action of in-situ stress and dynamic disturbance loads. The experimental setup comprised a tunnel model with “I-shaped” cracks, and a drop impact device (DID) was employed to generate dynamic wave loads. A crack fracture test (CFT) was utilized to gather information on the fracture process, including initiation time and average propagation rate. A series of combined scenarios were subsequently simulated to replicate various in situ stress levels (ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 MPa) and dynamic loads. The results indicate that with increasing in situ stress, the crack propagation rate, crack propagation length, and crack break time (CBT) decrease; moreover, the circumferential tensile stress concentration factor in the tunnel also decreases, enhancing tunnel stability. Finally, changes in ground stress influence the propagation path of cracks.</p>","PeriodicalId":100363,"journal":{"name":"Deep Underground Science and Engineering","volume":"5 1","pages":"43-55"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2026-03-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/dug2.70013","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147683472","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Form and load transfer aspects of foundation systems: Case-based implementation and adaptation for buildings","authors":"Abolfazl Eslami,&nbsp;Amirhossein Ebrahimipour,&nbsp;Meysam Imani,&nbsp;Reza Imam,&nbsp;Pinqiang Mo","doi":"10.1002/dug2.12146","DOIUrl":"10.1002/dug2.12146","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Conventionally, foundations have been classified as shallow or deep in routine civil engineering practice. However, due to recent developments, two other approaches, semi-deep and ground modification foundations, are now available, complicating foundation categorization. Accordingly, a new concept for foundation categorization is introduced in this paper based on insights into the theory of structure analysis. Based on the form aspect, foundation systems can be categorized as one-dimensional (linear), two-dimensional (planar), and three-dimensional (volumetric). Based on the load transfer aspect, foundations can also be categorized as vector-acting (piles), section or surface-acting (rafts and shells), and block-acting (piled rafts). As a step toward implementing this new categorization scheme, a database of 22 cases has been compiled, symbolizing novel introduced foundation systems. This compilation involves structures such as offshore jackets, high-rise buildings, towers and storages, and diverse geomaterials. Among them, a few have been selected for detailed evaluation, emphasizing influential factors in foundation selection, comprising superstructure, subsoil condition, foundation system, circumferential conditions, and supplementary considerations, that is, constructional and sustainability-based issues. Lessons learned from experience and these knowledge-based cases have described for foundation selection and implementation. Geotechnical and practical aspects with critical components have been realized as major performance assessment and comparison factors. Foundation systems have been compared and ranked using the improved analytic hierarchy process approach. Finally, four categories of buildings, from low-rise to towers and four prevailing levels of soil strength, from soft to very hard, have been considered to propose a perspective for building substructure implementation, adapted via relevant cases. Overall, the introduced categorization is recognized as an efficient algorithm for the experimentation of appropriate foundations for specific structures and subsoil conditions.</p>","PeriodicalId":100363,"journal":{"name":"Deep Underground Science and Engineering","volume":"5 1","pages":"176-192"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2026-03-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/dug2.12146","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147683883","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}