Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation最新文献

{"title":"Why is it so easy to undergo devegetation in the Brazilian Cerrado?","authors":"Ricardo B Machado ,&nbsp;Ludmilla MS Aguiar ,&nbsp;Mercedes MC Bustamante","doi":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.08.003","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.08.003","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Cerrado, the second largest biome in Brazil and home to nearly 5% of global biodiversity, has experienced a resurgence of devegetation due to the expansion of agribusiness activities. For the last two years, the devegetated area was more than one million hectares per year, surpassing the suppressed vegetation in the Amazon for the same period. Thus, the biome that is already the most impacted in Brazil is rapidly going to a critical tipping point of conservation, when conservation actions, like habitat restoration and species management, will be inviable due to the high cost. Such a situation results from political decisions taken years ago to expand the agricultural frontier to its northern portion, where environmental and social impacts are of high concern. We argue that a new development model is urgently needed to be implemented in the region with most of the remaining natural area.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56034,"journal":{"name":"Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation","volume":"22 3","pages":"Pages 209-212"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2530064424000415/pdfft?md5=d2d1c0779dfda82a7c75269a4f1cc80c&pid=1-s2.0-S2530064424000415-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142310994","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"How can Brazilian legislation on native seeds advance based on good practices of restoration in other countries?","authors":"Rodrigo Dutra-Silva ,&nbsp;Gerhard E. Overbeck ,&nbsp;Sandra C. Müller","doi":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.08.002","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.08.002","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In the decade of global ecological restoration efforts, Brazil intends to restore 12 million hectares of degraded areas. This will require an ample offer of seeds of native species, unavailable on the current market, which is partly due to inadequate legislation. We reviewed the literature on native seed production and the specific legislation in Brazil, and compared with rules of other countries to identify good examples to be followed. We first verified a lack of regulation concerning the seed collection in natural environments in Brazil, which contrasts with the Society of Ecological Restoration (SER) recommendations. Best practices for seed collection should be developed by environmental agencies. Second, the scarcity of accredited laboratories for native seed quality analysis is a limitation in Brazil. The development of strategies for streamlined accreditation that align with SER's quality standards for native seeds meant for restoration purposes is an important step. Furthermore, the regulation of the trade of seed mixtures in Brazil is currently restrictive and requires a revision of norms to facilitate their use, as the case in the European Union. The mixtures directly harvested from remnants are promising to promote restoration, especially of grassy ecosystems. Another aspect is the establishment of Seed Transfer Zones (STZs) to promote the use of locally adapted ecotypes and to ensure the conservation of genetic diversity in restoration. Our study indicates how examples from other countries and the SER guidelines can guide advances in Brazilian legislation and streamline the development of a seed supply chain for ecological restoration.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56034,"journal":{"name":"Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation","volume":"22 3","pages":"Pages 224-231"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2530064424000403/pdfft?md5=0eb9ffcbde38e6d483cbcb37b197d159&pid=1-s2.0-S2530064424000403-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142310997","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Overcoming biases of birds’ research in the Caatinga","authors":"Helon Simões Oliveira ,&nbsp;Sidney F. Gouveia","doi":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.09.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.09.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>“The biodiversity of the Caatinga is poorly known” has been a mantra among studies on biodiversity in Brazil, including birds. However, species richness in semiarid regions is expected to be lower than that in other ecosystems, and studies in the Caatinga have increased in recent decades. Therefore, this narrative may not only reflect knowledge bias. Here, we gathered complementary datasets of bird assemblages from literature and an online database of the Caatinga and other phytogeographic domains in Brazil. We then employed novel spatial and temporal predictive statistics to address this question. We estimate that the Caatinga is only six species short of fully knowing its taxonomic diversity. We did find important spatial knowledge gaps regarding species distribution, but only higher than that of the Atlantic Forest. The species richness and distribution of Caatinga birds are as well-known as the Pampa and Pantanal and are better known than the Cerrado and the Amazon rainforest. Our findings challenge the notion that the Caatinga is the poorest known region regarding birds. Bird research in the region should focus on advancing a research and conservation agenda that enhances understanding of regional biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics while promoting ecological syntheses for tropical dry forests.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56034,"journal":{"name":"Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation","volume":"22 3","pages":"Pages 270-276"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2530064424000439/pdfft?md5=e6ee16636eb8fe29acecddd6982cab90&pid=1-s2.0-S2530064424000439-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142310999","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Patterns of endemism in Amazonian floodplain birds","authors":"Thiago Orsi Laranjeiras ,&nbsp;Camila Cherem Ribas ,&nbsp;Mario Cohn-Haft","doi":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.08.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.08.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The subdivision of Amazonia in large interfluvial areas of endemism (delimited by major rivers), based mostly on bird species distributions, has been a recurrent starting point to the understanding and conservation of the biome’s megadiversity. Yet, no areas of endemism or regionalization have been described for the well over 100 bird species that occupy floodplain habitats along the rivers, and thus are not expected to have ranges delimited by the rivers themselves. Here, through spatial analyses of updated range maps (based on a dataset with more than 80 thousand occurrence records), for a revised list of 182 floodplain specialized bird taxa, we identified ten areas of endemism and a complementary habitat-specific regionalization of the biome (with 13 regions). For the floodplain birds, Amazonian major rivers are segmented into distinct areas of endemism rather than these areas being delimited by the rivers. The well-established large interfluvial areas of endemism are appropriate for <em>terra firme</em> species but fail to account for taxa associated with floodplain habitats. Natural history traits and taxonomy of endemic species suggest that both ecological and historical processes have contributed to the patterns found. This new regionalization is consistent with the view of Amazonia as a mosaic of ecoregions and offers a complementary scheme for studies on the evolution and conservation of the floodplain component of its biodiversity.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56034,"journal":{"name":"Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation","volume":"22 3","pages":"Pages 306-314"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2530064424000397/pdfft?md5=0b2ed9f8d35bfa1b5ec7f240b6511524&pid=1-s2.0-S2530064424000397-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142311001","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Is banning Persistent Organic Pollutants efficient? A quantitative and qualitative systematic review in bats","authors":"Priscila Stéfani Monteiro-Alves ,&nbsp;Elizabete Captivo Lourenço ,&nbsp;Rodrigo Ornellas Meire ,&nbsp;Helena Godoy Bergallo","doi":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.07.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.07.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Among the several noxious characteristics of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a low environmental degradation rate, as they remain in the environment for decades. One of the measures adopted to mitigate environmental contamination is the imposition of bans and restrictions to several chemical compounds. But are bans being efficient to reduce the amount of such chemicals in the environment? In this systematic review, we analyzed the efficacy of banning POPs using bats as biomonitors in terrestrial habitats. Although bats provide relevant ecosystem services, these animals are highly exposed to chemical organic pollutants such as POPs due to their feeding and behavioral habits. POP concentrations were observed in biological tissues of bats in the genus <em>Myotis</em> (United States), with levels decreasing over the years since the ban. We also noticed a shortage of studies in neotropical regions, where the information gap on several POPs in tropical systems is still a concern in terms of history and intensive use of these toxic chemicals. Few studies were found on emerging POPs or on POPs recently included in the Stockholm Convention. Besides, the specimens in the analyses in the studies reviewed were not separated by sex or age, which may conceal the potential risk of POPs to the conservation of bat populations. We recommend that future research extends beyond chronic POP contamination in bats to also include risk assessment trials, as wild populations may be affected in the long-term, as well as their role in the ecosystem and the economy, requiring long-term studies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56034,"journal":{"name":"Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation","volume":"22 3","pages":"Pages 250-259"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S253006442400035X/pdfft?md5=8c47d5d679042d99b38791dde851857e&pid=1-s2.0-S253006442400035X-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141704922","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Past references are insufficient for Latin American biodiversity conservation in the Anthropocene","authors":"H. Ricardo Grau ,&nbsp;Yohana G. Jimenez","doi":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.08.004","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.08.004","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Often, Latin America conservation policy implicitly assumes past references to define worth-conserving ecosystems. However, the Pleistocene/pre-human reference is based on biophysical conditions impossible to be restored; the early Holocene reference overlooks that early humans likely caused massive extinctions; pre-European references fail to acknowledge that indigenous societies were often unsustainable and that many valuable ecosystems are in part a colonial legacy; pre-industrial references underplay the role of biological invasions, modern technology and socioeconomic development to preserve, increase or generate biodiversity. The Anthropocene rapid dynamics requires forward-looking policies that incorporate change as a source of biodiversity and resilience, actively accept that urbanization and modern agriculture can play a key role in conservation, challenge the prevalence of nativism and eco-alarmism, and emphasize that research should focus on shaping future socio-ecological scenarios, that would necessarily differ from the past.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56034,"journal":{"name":"Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation","volume":"22 3","pages":"Pages 205-208"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2530064424000427/pdfft?md5=1db02efdf2477d582fd6d6f588cabcd7&pid=1-s2.0-S2530064424000427-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142310993","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Spatial bias in sampling small rodents in the Atlantic Forest: A landscape and accessibility perspective","authors":"Thadeu Sobral-Souza ,&nbsp;Nicolas Silva Bosco ,&nbsp;Lana Pavão Candelária ,&nbsp;Rosane Garcia Collevatti ,&nbsp;Viviane Maria Guedes Layme ,&nbsp;Domingos de Jesus Rodrigues","doi":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.07.004","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.07.004","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Understanding the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on species spatial distribution is challenging, mainly because knowledge of species occurrences is biased. Survey efforts are unevenly distributed causing spatial sampling biases that are normally neglected. Assessing sampling bias is particularly urgent for threatened ecoregions, such as the Atlantic Forest, a global biodiversity hotspot. Here, we assess spatial sampling biases of small rodents in the Atlantic Forest, using an integrative approach with accessibility and landscape metrics. We built a robust dataset of 11,495 primary records of the Atlantic Forest’s small rodent species, based on information from digitally accessible repositories. We expect that well-sampled sites are spatially aggregated and nearer roads, urban centers, on landscapes with larger forest fragments, and with higher percentage of forest cover. We also expect gaps of small rodents sampling in rare landscape conditions. Our results indicated that only less than 1% of the Atlantic Forest (at 1 km² cell-size resolution) are well sampled. Following our expectations, the well-sampled sites were spatially aggregated biased toward roads, urban centers, larger forest fragments, and landscapes with higher percentage of forest cover. We also found a survey gap on common landscape conditions. Our findings suggest that the spatial distribution of small rodents at landscape level (1 km²) remains unknown across most of the Atlantic Forest spatial extension. Our findings also point to new priority sites for small mammals sampling on common landscape conditions, in smaller fragments and on remote areas improving spatial distribution knowledge and contributing to conservation policies at landscape level.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56034,"journal":{"name":"Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation","volume":"22 3","pages":"Pages 297-305"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2530064424000385/pdfft?md5=b2c7dd3ec83912b05ca9959d14e40dc2&pid=1-s2.0-S2530064424000385-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142311002","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Climate influence on future suitability of high-altitude wetlands in two natural protected areas from the Central Andes of Argentina","authors":"Bárbara Vento ,&nbsp;Juan Rivera ,&nbsp;Marcela Ontivero","doi":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.04.006","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.04.006","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Climate conditions have a strong influence on the distribution of many natural communities; thus, the influence of global climate change may alter ecosystems. High-altitude wetlands in the Central Andes of Argentina (CAA) provide relevant ecosystem benefits and promote human activities. However, a degradation of Andean wetlands has been observed and documented in the last decades. Projecting the impacts of climate change on future distribution of wetlands is an essential subject in ecological studies. In this work, the present and future suitability for wetland systems in a pristine section of the CAA using spatial distribution modeling under low and high-emission scenarios are explored. The studied wetlands are strongly driven by bioclimatic variables such as mean annual temperature, precipitation, and its seasonality. Projections show that most of the currently occupied areas will modify under future climate conditions. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns will decrease the potential suitability in low elevation areas for the next decades for the species inhabiting there, especially south of 29 °S. Additionally, future warmer climatic conditions, greater temperature variability, and reduction in precipitation would probably affect the snow cover and the available water supply which are key limiting factors for the distribution of Andean wetlands. This research is a contribution to understanding possible effects of climate change on high-altitude ecosystems. Mitigation measures for conservation of wetlands in CAA are immediately required to compensate for the impact of climate change under future environmental conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56034,"journal":{"name":"Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation","volume":"22 3","pages":"Pages 240-249"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2530064424000269/pdfft?md5=bb7ec1be50286de0876689fdf8346026&pid=1-s2.0-S2530064424000269-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141699244","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"“Peatlands in the Brazilian Cerrado: insights into knowledge, status and research needs”","authors":"Felix Beer ,&nbsp;Cássia Beatriz Rodrigues Munhoz ,&nbsp;John Couwenberg ,&nbsp;Ingrid Horák-Terra ,&nbsp;Leila Maria Garcia Fonseca ,&nbsp;Natália Rodrigues Bijos ,&nbsp;Catia Nunes da Cunha ,&nbsp;Karl Matthias Wantzen","doi":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.07.003","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.07.003","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Wetlands play an important role for water, carbon storage and biodiversity in the seasonally dry and hot environments of tropical savannas. Peatlands, which are permanent wetlands, are important as the carbon-richest parts of wetland ecosystems with a strong ability to store carbon, retain water and regulate its flow. With this first review on peatlands in the Cerrado we synthesize existing knowledge and gaps on their distribution and types in the biome including, vegetation, soil properties, carbon stocks and hydrogeomorphology. Peatlands are embedded in wetland complexes in valleys, groundwater-fed oligo- to mesotrophic, with wet grass- and shrubland, <em>Vereda</em> or riparian swamp forest vegetation. Average peat depth is 1.4 meters and soil carbon stocks in the first meter can be 9 times higher than in mineral soils under Cerrado dryland vegetation, reaching about 1000 t carbon per hectare. Total soil carbon stock estimates (3.19 Gt C) in peatlands equal 13.3% of the total soil carbon in the Cerrado in only 0.7% of its total area, although large uncertainties exist. Actual peatland occurrence appears to be more abundant than current soil and peat maps suggest. The high rate of transformation of the native vegetation into industrial agriculture and wood plantations, which affects large parts of the Cerrado, is a major cause for the degradation and the loss of peatlands and other wetlands. However, the extent of peatland degradation and resulting carbon losses remain unfathomed. We identified research needs such as better mapping and monitoring, and recommend including peatlands into wetland classification systems in Brazil.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56034,"journal":{"name":"Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation","volume":"22 3","pages":"Pages 260-269"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2530064424000373/pdfft?md5=454e6e6b21ad4f5b507a6de2316ba5df&pid=1-s2.0-S2530064424000373-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142311000","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Identifying priority conservation areas for the Andean Condor in Colombia","authors":"María Alejandra Parrado-Vargas ,&nbsp;José Fernando González-Maya ,&nbsp;Björn Reu ,&nbsp;Antoni Margalida ,&nbsp;Fausto Sáenz-Jiménez ,&nbsp;Félix Hernán Vargas","doi":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.05.002","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.pecon.2024.05.002","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Andean Condor (<em>Vultur gryphus</em>) is a globally threatened species. Its highly mobile capability presents important challenges for conservation planning, especially in extremely geographically complex regions such as Colombia, where little is known about its ecology. Over the past three decades, financial and technical conservation efforts have primarily focussed on reintroduction and local management strategies. However, these initiatives did not properly prioritize the various conservation measures undertaken. We utilized roosting locations across Colombia to identify suitable roosting distribution with high risk because of the anthropogenic impact on a Systematic Planning Tool for decision-making based on robust spatial habitat modelling to define where and how should focus the Andean condor conservation actions in the country. Specifically, we aimed to develop a conservation planning tool to facilitate spatially explicit decision-making. Our results showed that Colombia has at least 19,571.33 km2 of suitable roosting habitat for this species, but over 30% of this area is currently considered to be under conservation risk due to severe anthropogenic impacts. Considering this, we suggested different actions for each proposed area according to potential threats generated by human communities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56034,"journal":{"name":"Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation","volume":"22 3","pages":"Pages 288-296"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2530064424000282/pdfft?md5=b508e5ad2a1eec4bc9d69c742ee1aa24&pid=1-s2.0-S2530064424000282-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142310992","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}