Forest Ecosystems最新文献

{"title":"Large-scale modelling wind damage vulnerability through combination of high-resolution forest resources maps and ForestGALES","authors":"Morgane Merlin, Tommaso Locatelli, Barry Gardiner, Rasmus Astrup","doi":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100361","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100361","url":null,"abstract":"Assessing forest vulnerability to disturbances at a high spatial resolution and for regional and national scales has become attainable with the combination of remote sensing-derived high-resolution forest maps and mechanistic risk models. This study demonstrated large-scale and high-resolution modelling of wind damage vulnerability in Norway. The hybrid mechanistic wind damage model, ForestGALES, was adapted to map the critical wind speeds (CWS) of damage across Norway using a national forest attribute map at a 16 m × 16 m spatial resolution. Parametrization of the model for the Norwegian context was done using the literature and the National Forest Inventory data. This new parametrization of the model for Norwegian forests yielded estimates of CWS significantly different from the default parametrization. Both parametrizations fell short of providing acceptable discrimination of the damaged area following the storm of 19 November 2021 in the central southern region of Norway when using unadjusted CWS. After adjusting the CWS and the storm wind speeds by a constant factor, the Norwegian parametrization provided acceptable discrimination and was thus defined as suitable to use in future studies, despite the lack of field- and laboratory experiments to directly derive parameters for Norwegian forests. The windstorm event used for model validation in this study highlighted the challenges of predicting wind damage to forests in landscapes with complex topography. Future studies should focus on further developing ForestGALES and new datasets describing extreme wind climates to better represent the wind and tree interactions in complex topography, and predict the level of risk in order to develop local climate-smart forest management strategies.","PeriodicalId":54270,"journal":{"name":"Forest Ecosystems","volume":"15 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2025-06-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144337676","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The spatial shifts and vulnerability assessment of ecological niches under climate change scenarios at the genus level: A case study of Betula, China","authors":"Xian-Ge Hu, Jiahui Chen, Ying Yang, Man Shi, Peng Liu, Yiheng Lin, Jian-Feng Mao, Yousry A. El-Kassaby, Erpei Lin, Huahong Huang","doi":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100360","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100360","url":null,"abstract":"As global warming persistently alters and rapidly reshapes landscapes and habitats, conventional species distribution models relying solely on maintaining static conditions within the current climate are likely to falter, particularly at the genus level. Hence, we hypothesize that climate change will differentially affect ecological niches of the same genus species with various latitudinal positioning and local topography, and the high-latitude species may experience greater niche contraction than low-latitude species, and that mountainous regions with high elevational variability may serve as critical climate refugia. Herein, we simulate niche alterations and integrate an ensemble model (EM) strategy, taking into account species dispersal limitations factors (topography, soil, and ultraviolet), to construct a comprehensive habitat suitability (CHS) model for assessing the future vulnerability of the <ce:italic>Betula</ce:italic> genus, most of which are timber species in China. Our findings reveal that the niche spatial (geographic distribution) of most species (62%) within the <ce:italic>Betula</ce:italic> genus will undergo a gradual decline under climate change, supporting our hypothesis of latitudinal differentiation in climate vulnerability. Intriguingly, the projected high-latitude niche reduction within the genus cannot be counterbalanced by the anticipated niche expansion of closely related species in low-latitude regions, even considering the evident latitudinal gradient distribution of species. Nonetheless, the niche spatial of six <ce:italic>Betula</ce:italic> species in southwestern China remains stable or expands under warming scenarios, strongly supporting our secondary hypothesis about topographic buffering effects, which probably means the unique topography (i.e., the largest elevation difference) of this region may serve as a sanctuary for preserving <ce:italic>Betula</ce:italic> genetic diversity. Our results underscore the uncertain nature of pre-existing niche systems at the genus level under climate change, emphasizing the need for diligent resource management and conservation planning for vulnerable timber species.","PeriodicalId":54270,"journal":{"name":"Forest Ecosystems","volume":"16 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2025-06-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144337677","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Coarse woody debris requirements for maintaining land snail diversity in managed spruce forests","authors":"Kristina Svobodová,&nbsp;Michal Horsák","doi":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100359","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100359","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Coarse woody debris (CWD) plays a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity in forest ecosystems by supporting habitat complexity and influencing soil properties. This study investigates the effects of CWD on gastropod diversity within managed spruce (<em>Picea abies</em>) forests in the Czech Republic, comparing results to nearby nature reserves (NRs). Gastropod species richness and composition were evaluated at both plot (50 ​m ​× ​50 ​m) and mesohabitat scales across gradients of CWD and beech (<em>Fagus sylvatica</em>) tree representation. Our results indicate significantly reduced species richness in managed forests (median 7 species per plot) compared to NRs (median 15 species), attributed to lower soil pH, calcium availability, and moisture due to the dominance of spruce and the limited availability of CWD. Species richness was positively influenced by CWD volume, with two amounts identified: a minimum of 4 ​m³·ha⁻¹ to prevent significant biodiversity loss and 20 ​m³·ha⁻¹ to support sensitive and dendrophile species. At the within-plot scale, CWD was the species richest mesohabitat, playing a particularly important role in acidic and nutrient-poor environments. Furthermore, beech basal area positively correlated with species richness, mitigating the negative impact of spruce. The findings highlight the critical need for changes in forest management, including increased retention of CWD and integration of deciduous trees, to support biodiversity in intensively managed forests. These measures are particularly urgent given the susceptibility of spruce monocultures to climate change and pest outbreaks. Gastropods, as sessile indicators of environmental change, may serve as effective umbrella species for conservation efforts targeting forest soil biodiversity.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54270,"journal":{"name":"Forest Ecosystems","volume":"14 ","pages":"Article 100359"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-06-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144305041","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Large-scale and long-term spatiotemporal patterns of disturbances in primary beech-dominated forests in the Carpathian Mountains of Europe","authors":"Pavel Janda, Arne Buechling, Marek Svitok, Thomas A. Nagel, Martin Mikoláš, Radek Bače, Krešimir Begović, Martin Dušátko, Daniela Dúhová, Matěj Ferenčík, Michal Frankovič, Rhiannon Gloor, Ondrej Kameniar, Tomáš Kníř, Daniel Kozák, Jana Ágh Lábusová, Katarína Markuljaková, Jakob Pavlin, Ion Catalin Petritan, Catalin-Constantin Roibu, Audrey Rose Salerno, Karol Ujházy, Antonín Veber, Lucie Vítková, Miroslav Svoboda","doi":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100358","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100358","url":null,"abstract":"Extreme disturbance activity is a signature of anthropogenic environmental change. Empirical information describing the historical normative limits of disturbance regimes provides baseline data that facilitates the detection of contemporary trends in both disturbances and community-level responses. Quantifying the attributes of historical disturbances is challenging due to their transient episodic nature, with decades- to centuries-long intervals between recurrences. Unmanaged primary forests that support centuries-old trees therefore serve as unique reference systems for quantifying past disturbance regimes. We surveyed relict stands of primary beech-dominated forests over wide environmental gradients in the Carpathian Mountains of Europe. We collected core samples from 3,026 trees in 208 field survey plots distributed across 13 forest stands in two countries. We used dendrochronological methods to analyze time-series of annually-resolved ring-width variation and to identify anomalous growth patterns diagnostic of past forest canopy removal. A 180-year record (1810–1990) of spatially and temporally explicit disturbance events (<ce:italic>n</ce:italic> = 333) was compiled and used to derive statistical attributes of the disturbance regime. We quantified disturbance severity (canopy area lost), patch size, and return intervals. Our analyses describe a complex regime where a background of relatively frequent, small-scale, low- to intermediate-severity disturbance was punctuated by episodic large-scale high-severity events. Even the most severe events were non-catastrophic at a stand level, leaving significant residual tree cover that supported a continuity of ecological function. We did not detect evidence for an expected climate-induced intensification of disturbance with time, but methodological limitations precluded an assessment of disturbance activity in the decades since 1990.","PeriodicalId":54270,"journal":{"name":"Forest Ecosystems","volume":"230 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2025-06-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144305044","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Both composition and configuration of forests and urban development shape bat activity and diversity in North American temperate forests","authors":"Sihao Chen ,&nbsp;Han Li","doi":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100357","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100357","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Temperate forest ecosystems are important habitats for many bat species. However, these habitats are increasingly affected by anthropogenic disturbances, particularly urban development, leading to landscapes with varying land cover composition and configuration. Limited research has examined how forest and urban landscape composition and configuration influence bat activity and diversity. Using a multi-year statewide bat acoustic monitoring dataset from North Carolina, USA, we investigated the effects of forest and urban composition and configuration at multiple spatial scales on bat activity and diversity. First, we constructed single-variable landscape index regression models and found that both the composition and configuration of forests and urban developments influenced bat activity and diversity in a species-specific manner. Next, we applied a hierarchical partitioning approach to compare the relative contributions of composition and configuration indices in explaining variance in bat activity. For big brown bats and hoary bats, evergreen forest and urban development composition indices contributed the most to explaining activity variance. In contrast, for eastern red bats, evening bats, and tricolored bats, deciduous forest fragmentation indices describing landscape configuration were the most influential factors. Silver-haired bat activity variance was primarily explained by an evergreen forest fragmentation index. Lastly, urban development configuration indices were the strongest predictors of Mexican free-tailed bat activity and total bat activity. These results suggest that forest and urban landscape configuration should be considered in conservation and management planning for North American temperate forest ecosystems, particularly in regions that have not experienced drastic deforestation in recent decades.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54270,"journal":{"name":"Forest Ecosystems","volume":"14 ","pages":"Article 100357"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-06-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144365826","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Recruitment dynamics in conifer-dominated uneven-aged forests in the carpathians","authors":"Jaroslav Vencurik ,&nbsp;Michal Bosela ,&nbsp;Ladislav Šumichrast ,&nbsp;Anna Petrová ,&nbsp;Peter Jaloviar ,&nbsp;Denisa Sedmáková ,&nbsp;Zuzana Parobeková ,&nbsp;Ján Pittner ,&nbsp;Ivan Repáč ,&nbsp;Stanislav Kucbel","doi":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100351","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100351","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In permanently uneven-aged forests, continuous ingrowth of recruitment into higher stand layers is a critical process for the formation and maintenance of differentiated stand structures. This study analyses the abundance and diversity of recruitment (diameter at breast high (DBH) 0.1–4 ​cm) across 241 research plots in 11 structurally differentiated Norway spruce (silver fir)-dominated forest stands distributed at altitudes between 500 and 1,440 ​m a.s.l. The influence of light conditions and lateral competition characteristics on the height increment and crown architecture of recruitment was investigated in detail for 352 Norway spruce and 361 silver fir trees. Light-related variables were confirmed to directly affect the recruitment distribution only to a limited extent. Under relatively low light conditions in montane stands, silver fir reached higher height increments than Norway spruce. The better adaptation of silver fir to shaded conditions was reflected also in its higher apical dominance ratio compared to Norway spruce. The height increment and apical dominance ratio of Norway spruce and silver fir recruitment were positively correlated with indirect radiation, DBH, and relative crown length (RCL), but not with lateral competition. These results confirm that the regulation of light conditions in permanently uneven-aged stands is crucial for the growth dynamics of recruitment, as well as for the future proportions of Norway spruce and silver fir in mixed, structurally diverse stands.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54270,"journal":{"name":"Forest Ecosystems","volume":"14 ","pages":"Article 100351"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144253915","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Allometric equations quantify accelerated growth and carbon fixation in trees of northeastern north America","authors":"John Schwarzmann ,&nbsp;Donald M. Waller","doi":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100347","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100347","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A tree's basal area (BA) and wood volume scale exponentially with tree diameter in species-specific patterns. Recent observed increases in tree growth suggest these allometric relationships are shifting in response to climate change, rising CO₂ levels, and/or changes in forest management. We analyzed 9,214 cores from nine conifer and 11 broadleaf species grown in managed mixed-species stands in the upper Midwest to quantify how well diameter (diameter at breast height (DBH)) serves to predict BA growth and above-ground wood and carbon (C). These samples include many large trees. We fit mixed models to predict BA growth and above-ground biomass/C from diameter, tree height, and the BA of nearby trees while controlling for site effects. Models account for 55%–83% of the variance in log(recent growth), improving predictions over earlier models. Growth-diameter scaling exponents covary with certain leaf and stem (but not wood) functional traits, reflecting growth strategies. LogBA increment scales linearly with log(diameter) as trees grow bigger in 16/20 species and growth actually accelerates in <em>Quercus rubra</em> L. Three other species plateau in growth. Growth only decelerates in red pine, <em>Pinus resinosa</em> Ait. Growth in whole-tree, above-ground biomass, and C accelerate even more strongly with diameter (mean exponent: 2.08 vs. 1.30 for BA growth). Sustained BA growth and accelerating wood/C growth contradict the common assumption that tree growth declines in bigger trees. Yield tables and silvicultural guidelines should be updated to reflect these current relationships. Such revisions will favor delaying harvests in many managed stands to increase wood production and enhance ecosystem values including C fixation and storage. Further research may resolve the relative roles of thinning, climatic conditions, nitrogen inputs, and rising CO₂ levels on changing patterns of tree growth.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54270,"journal":{"name":"Forest Ecosystems","volume":"14 ","pages":"Article 100347"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144253914","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Leaf morphological trait integration and modularity provide insights into ecological adaptation in evergreen oaks","authors":"Yi Zhang ,&nbsp;Yanjun Luo ,&nbsp;Min Qi ,&nbsp;Ying Li ,&nbsp;Fang K. Du","doi":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100350","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100350","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The integration and modularity of leaf morphological traits are fundamental to plant adaptations, yet their responses to diverse environmental pressures remain unclear. In this study, we investigate the roles of leaf trait integration and modularity and how they interact with environmental factors. We analyzed geometric, traditional, and functional leaf traits across 908 individuals from 72 populations of two alpine evergreen oaks, <em>Quercus aquifolioides</em> Rehder &amp; E.H. Wilson and <em>Quercus spinosa</em> David ex Franch., distributed throughout the Himalayan-Hengduan Mountains (HHM), employing genetic assignment as <em>a priori</em>. Multivariate and redundancy analyses revealed that <em>Q. aquifolioides</em>, which inhabits harsher environments, exhibits lower trait integration and greater morphological flexibility, allowing for dynamic adaptation to fluctuating conditions. In contrast, <em>Q. spinosa</em>, thriving in milder environments, demonstrates stronger integration and stability in leaf morphology, facilitating resource optimization and providing a competitive advantage. Notable differences in modularity between the two species were observed, particularly in specific leaf traits, as revealed by structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis. These results underscore the adaptive significance of leaf trait integration and modularity in extreme environments and highlight the critical role of leaf morphology in enhancing species resilience.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54270,"journal":{"name":"Forest Ecosystems","volume":"14 ","pages":"Article 100350"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144204250","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Minimal expansion of shrubland on the Tibetan Plateau over the past three decades","authors":"Li Liu ,&nbsp;Daijun Yao ,&nbsp;Guang Zhao ,&nbsp;Zhoutao Zheng ,&nbsp;Ning Zong ,&nbsp;Yan Zhao ,&nbsp;Ke Huang ,&nbsp;Nan Cong ,&nbsp;Yu Zhang ,&nbsp;Qianxin Jiang ,&nbsp;Yunlong He ,&nbsp;Wenchao Wu ,&nbsp;Yangjian Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100349","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100349","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Shrubland expansion is a globally occurring phenomenon under global change and has caused a wide range of ecological consequences. However, due to the visual similarity between shrubland and grassland, the accuracy of shrubland interpretation and its spatial distribution varies across different products, making shrub encroachment on the Tibetan Plateau (TP) uncertain. To address these challenges, we developed a phenology-based and pixel-wise method utilizing the Landsat, Sentinel-1, and Sentinel-2 image archives to map shrubland distribution from 1990 to 2022 across the TP. We also investigated the factors affecting shrubland distribution. Using the Random Forest (RF) model, we achieved moderate to high accuracies (Kappa ​= ​0.70–0.81) in predicting shrubland distributions, and we found that shrubland primarily occupies transitional zones between forest and grassland. In the southeast TP, solar radiation intensity is the dominant factor explaining the spatial distribution of shrubland, whereas in arid regions, water availability is the most important. From 1990 to 2022, the shrubland area slightly increased from 3.40% to 4.71%, with expansion showing a clustered pattern, mainly in the shaded aspects of arid regions. The shrubland identification method proposed here shows potential applicability in other areas with similar environmental conditions, such as arid landscapes or high-altitude ecosystems with pronounced seasonal vegetation dynamics. It also plays a crucial role in evaluating vegetation responses to climatic changes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54270,"journal":{"name":"Forest Ecosystems","volume":"14 ","pages":"Article 100349"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144204251","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The origin and beginnings of modern Continuous Cover Forestry in Europe","authors":"Arne Pommerening ,&nbsp;Ulrika Widman ,&nbsp;Janusz Szmyt","doi":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100348","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fecs.2025.100348","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Continuous Cover Forestry (CCF) is a type of forest management that is based on ecological, environmental, and biological principles. Specific definitions of CCF greatly vary and the concept usually includes a number of tenets or criteria. The most important tenet of CCF is the requirement to abandon the practice of large-scale clearfelling in favour of selective thinning/harvesting and natural regeneration methods.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>CCF is commonly believed to have its main origin in an academic debate that was conducted through publications in a number of European and North American countries towards the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. Our findings are exclusively based on a literature review of the history of CCF and they revealed that the European origins of CCF go much further back to a form of farm forestry that started to be practised in Central Europe in the 17th century. Eventually, this type of farm forestry led to the formation of the single-tree selection system as we know it today. Another influential tradition line contributing to modern CCF is individual-based forest management, which breaks forest stands down into small neighbourhood-based units. The centres of these units are dominant frame trees which form the framework of a forest stand. Consequently, management is only carried out in the local neighbourhood of frame trees. Individual-based forest management also modified inflexible area-control approaches of plantation forest management in favour of the flexible size-control method.</div></div><div><h3>Results and conclusions</h3><div>We found evidence that the three aforementioned tradition lines are equally important and much interacted in shaping modern CCF. Since CCF is an international accomplishment, it is helpful to thoroughly study the drivers and causes of such concepts. Understanding the gradual evolution can give valuable clues for the introduction and adaptation of CCF in countries where the concept is new.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54270,"journal":{"name":"Forest Ecosystems","volume":"14 ","pages":"Article 100348"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144147623","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}