Environmental Development最新文献_第10页

Building cleaner communities in equatorial Africa: Road upgrades and household waste management in northern Benin 在赤道非洲建设更清洁的社区：贝宁北部的道路升级和家庭废物管理

IF 4.7 2区环境科学与生态学

Environmental Development Pub Date : 2025-02-17 DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101179

Dafeng Xu

{"title":"Building cleaner communities in equatorial Africa: Road upgrades and household waste management in northern Benin","authors":"Dafeng Xu","doi":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101179","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101179","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Scholars have long discussed various transportation tools as key factors in building sustainable societies by either generating or reducing environmental hazards. We examine effects of road upgrades on household waste management, an environmental outcome that is less explored in prior research, yet particularly relevant in the Global South. We use the latest census and health survey data from Benin to estimate how household waste disposal practices in northern Benin were affected by a major road project that began to be used in 2011. We use difference-in-differences regression models to estimate the effect of the road project by comparing areas with and without road upgrades, before and after the construction. Results show that this road project led to a statistically significant and sizeable increase in the sustainable, service-based collection of household waste in communities that were involved in the project and were historically less developed. The positive environmental effects were concentrated among rural communities. These results illustrate that improvements in transportation infrastructure facilitate environmental management—specifically waste management in this paper—by making the delivery of environmental services more effective and accessible to ordinary people. Overall, this paper provides policy recommendation for politicians and planners to consider transportation as an integral part of sustainable social and economic development.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54269,"journal":{"name":"Environmental Development","volume":"54 ","pages":"Article 101179"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143444493","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Life cycle assessment of black tea production and consumption in Türkiye: Insights from waste management scenarios 日本红茶生产和消费的生命周期评估：来自废物管理情景的见解

IF 4.7 2区环境科学与生态学

Environmental Development Pub Date : 2025-02-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101176

Fehmi Görkem Üçtuğ , Volkan Ş. Ediger , Mehmet Ali Küçüker , İstemi Berk , Ali İnan , Melisa Tuğcu

{"title":"Life cycle assessment of black tea production and consumption in Türkiye: Insights from waste management scenarios","authors":"Fehmi Görkem Üçtuğ , Volkan Ş. Ediger , Mehmet Ali Küçüker , İstemi Berk , Ali İnan , Melisa Tuğcu","doi":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101176","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101176","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study conducts a life cycle assessment (LCA) of tea production and consumption in Türkiye, the world leader in per capita tea consumption. Aiming to identify environmental hotspots and propose sustainable solutions, a cradle-to-grave LCA was performed using CCaLC2 software, CML methodology, and the Ecoinvent 3.0 database. It covers cultivation, processing, transportation, and consumption stages, focusing on key environmental indicators like carbon footprint and acidification potential.</div><div>The results reveal that consumption dominates the environmental footprint (91%) due to energy-intensive brewing methods. Cultivation and transportation contribute minimally (4% each). This highlights the need for promoting energy-efficient brewing practices and consumer adoption of renewable energy sources. The study also explores the environmental implications of different waste management strategies. Composting emerged as the most beneficial approach for reducing the carbon footprint and photochemical oxidants creation, while incineration might be preferable for other impact categories.</div><div>This study underscores the importance of addressing energy consumption during tea brewing and encouraging renewable energy use among consumers. Additionally, it promotes composting as a crucial waste management strategy for a more sustainable tea value chain in Türkiye. These findings offer valuable insights for policymakers, industry players, and tea drinkers to make informed decisions that minimize environmental impact.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54269,"journal":{"name":"Environmental Development","volume":"55 ","pages":"Article 101176"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143453534","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Physicochemical and microbial treatments for plastics, microplastics, and nanoplastics 塑料，微塑料和纳米塑料的物理化学和微生物处理

IF 4.7 2区环境科学与生态学

Environmental Development Pub Date : 2025-02-15 DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101181

Amairani Flores-Díaz , Jineth A. Arango , Diana C. Calvo , Rene Rangel-Mendez , Aura Ontiveros-Valencia

{"title":"Physicochemical and microbial treatments for plastics, microplastics, and nanoplastics","authors":"Amairani Flores-Díaz , Jineth A. Arango , Diana C. Calvo , Rene Rangel-Mendez , Aura Ontiveros-Valencia","doi":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101181","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101181","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Plastic pollution is one of the most threatening environmental and public health problems. In 2023, total plastics production reached 322 million metric tons, from which more than 50% are thrown into the oceans, rivers, or lakes. Plastics are recalcitrant compounds that remain in nature and the built environment for decades due to their durability and stability. Accumulation of plastic has been reported even inside human's body as micro and nanoplastics can enter the food chain. Given the relevance of plastic waste pollution for our society and ecosystems, we analyzed the literature on plastic degradation from 1974 to 2025 and conducted a bibliometric analysis focused on physicochemical and microbial treatments for plastics. Our results showed that plastics' hydrophobicity and crystallinity are the main polymer degradation challenges. Polyethylene and polypropylene are the most researched plastics. Microbial degradation is frequently chosen for plastics degradation, while UV oxidation has been the most used physicochemical treatment. Hybrid plastic degradation treatments must be conducted from a transdisciplinary perspective. In this review, we synthesize the main techniques used to characterize plastics and microbial strains highly studied for plastics degradation. The field of plastic degradation is quickly unfolding and expanding its boundaries.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54269,"journal":{"name":"Environmental Development","volume":"54 ","pages":"Article 101181"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143437397","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Decoding urban form resilience and adaptation in flood prone wards of Surat, India: Exploring the duality of public-private discourse 解读印度苏拉特易受洪水侵袭地区的城市形态弹性和适应性：探索公私话语的二元性

IF 4.7 2区环境科学与生态学

Environmental Development Pub Date : 2025-02-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101178

Nitesh Shukla, Arup Das, Tarak Nath Mazumder

{"title":"Decoding urban form resilience and adaptation in flood prone wards of Surat, India: Exploring the duality of public-private discourse","authors":"Nitesh Shukla, Arup Das, Tarak Nath Mazumder","doi":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101178","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101178","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Cities in the Global South face amplified consequences of climate change due to rapid urbanization, which is predominantly informal and lacks basic infrastructure and emergency support systems. The worst affected sections are those living in informal settlements, generally located in the city's floodplains. The lack of or lag in the state's response to flood hazards creates a need for urban dwellers to adapt to these recurring disturbances. However, there is limited understanding of the implications of these localized interventions for overall urban resilience and how they interact with state-level adaptation efforts. This study explores two layers of resilience phenomena: urban form resilience and the adaptive response of different stakeholders within the urban form. Taking case study of Surat, a city situated on the western ghats of India, the study assesses urban form resilience and the patterns and costs of adaptation through a Rapid Visual Survey (RVS). The findings reveal that formal urban areas have higher resilience scores, while informal settlements exhibit lower resilience scores but more individual adaptation. Individual households alter their physical form by taking measures such as raising the plinth, raising the porch area, constructing a protection wall on the entrance, and constructing a mezzanine floor to cope with recurring flood hazards. However, the cost of these individual adaptations is significantly high for an adapting household as compared to the per household cost of state-led adaptation. The study provides a context-specific input to the ongoing discourse on collaboration between top-down and bottom-up efforts for a resilient and sustainable urban environment.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54269,"journal":{"name":"Environmental Development","volume":"55 ","pages":"Article 101178"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143474633","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

The Investigation of the relation between agricultural land consumption and groundwater decline: A study of Duhok Governorate, Iraq 农业用地消耗与地下水减少的关系研究——以伊拉克杜胡克省为例

IF 4.7 2区环境科学与生态学

Environmental Development Pub Date : 2025-02-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101170

Brjin Safar Mohammed , Dietwald Gruehn , Sabine Baumgart

{"title":"The Investigation of the relation between agricultural land consumption and groundwater decline: A study of Duhok Governorate, Iraq","authors":"Brjin Safar Mohammed , Dietwald Gruehn , Sabine Baumgart","doi":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101170","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101170","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Agricultural land consumption caused by expropriation for infrastructure and development projects is an ongoing process in developing countries attributed to population growth and economic considerations. Rapid urban development in cities like Duhok in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region IKR has converted fertile lands into metropolitan areas in the past three decades. This development has resulted in numerous environmental impacts, particularly the decline in groundwater levels. This study investigates the relationship between this phenomenon and groundwater depletion in Semel and Zakho districts within Duhok governorate. The analysis spans from 1992 to 2023 for land consumption data and from 2004 to 2022 for groundwater decline data. The study utilized document analysis, field observation, and analysis of plans and drawings, using Geographic Information Systems GIS and Google Earth imagery, to examine the process's impact within the specific context. The findings reveal a significant increase in non-agricultural areas and a decline in agriculture over the studied period, demonstrating the sharp reduction in groundwater levels due to agricultural land consumption through expropriation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54269,"journal":{"name":"Environmental Development","volume":"55 ","pages":"Article 101170"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143478489","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

The blue crab (Callinectes spp.) value chain in Laguna (Santa Catarina, Brazil) under the perspective of Local Agri-Food Systems 当地农业食品系统视角下的巴西拉古纳（圣卡塔琳娜州）蓝蟹价值链

IF 4.7 2区环境科学与生态学

Environmental Development Pub Date : 2025-02-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101173

Carla Jovania Pereira, Jean Muller, Rodrigo Rodrigues de Freitas

{"title":"The blue crab (Callinectes spp.) value chain in Laguna (Santa Catarina, Brazil) under the perspective of Local Agri-Food Systems","authors":"Carla Jovania Pereira, Jean Muller, Rodrigo Rodrigues de Freitas","doi":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101173","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101173","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The small-scale fishery value chain faces challenges worldwide, from pre-catch, catch, and post-catch to consumption. Regarding the blue crab (<em>Callinectes</em> spp.), an important resource for traditional communities in Laguna (Santa Catarina, Brazil), it is no different. This study analyzes the blue crab value chain in Laguna from the perspective of Local Agri-Food Systems (LAS), a governance proposition that mobilizes the Sustainable Territorial Development approach. Primary data was collected through (i) direct observation and (ii) 20 semi-structured interviews with small-scale fishers and local traders. Secondary data was obtained through documentary research, including a review of the legislation on the health and commercialization aspects of artisanal Products of Animal Origin (PAO) and an analysis of data from the Santa Catarina State Fishing Activity Monitoring Project (PMAP-SC). The interviews were organized using the ranking technique and analyzed by the actors' taxonomy. The results suggest little interaction between public managers (regulatory, development, research, and extension agencies), fishers, and end consumers. The main difficulties include financial issues, lack of technical support, and devaluation of the artisanal product and the profession. The systems' feasibility requires mechanisms to encourage management, including financial independence, increased family income, economic incentives, and the value of local products. The balance between society and the community will define the territorial economy, considering the importance of historicity and collective memory in organizing local production systems. Reciprocity is fundamental, as is the construction of collective knowledge and the ability of the blue crab value chain actors to learn together.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54269,"journal":{"name":"Environmental Development","volume":"54 ","pages":"Article 101173"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143437396","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Exploring socioeconomic and environmental impacts of road infrastructure development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic literature review 探索撒哈拉以南非洲道路基础设施发展的社会经济和环境影响：系统的文献综述

IF 4.7 2区环境科学与生态学

Environmental Development Pub Date : 2025-02-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101177

Philipo Mtweve , Vincent Moseti , Nady Mahmoud , Tanja Kramm , Christina Bogner , Pierre Ibisch , Lisa Biber-Freudenberger

{"title":"Exploring socioeconomic and environmental impacts of road infrastructure development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic literature review","authors":"Philipo Mtweve , Vincent Moseti , Nady Mahmoud , Tanja Kramm , Christina Bogner , Pierre Ibisch , Lisa Biber-Freudenberger","doi":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101177","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101177","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>While road infrastructure expansion continues transforming Sub-Saharan Africa, research remains fragmented between socioeconomic and environmental impact assessments. Through a systematic review of 255 peer-reviewed articles from 6189 papers (1984–2024) examining road development impacts, we reveal patterns in research focus, methodological approaches and road development impacts. Approximately 58% of published studies on road impacts examined socioeconomic impacts, 37% investigated environmental effects, while only 5% investigated both socioeconomic and environmental impacts simultaneously. Geographically, most studies were conducted in five countries (Ethiopia, South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, and Tanzania), with 78% of these studies published after 2014. Furthermore, our analysis found a significant relationship between foreign direct investment (FDI) and environmental degradation, with countries experiencing a 34% increase in observed negative environmental road impacts for each standard deviation increase in FDI (β = 0.34, p < 0.05). This effect tended to be particularly strong in countries with weaker environmental governance. Moreover, countries with higher Human Development Index (HDI) scores demonstrated 28% fewer negative environmental impacts, suggesting development status significantly influences environmental management capacity. Consequently, we suggest assessing road effects from an interdisciplinary perspective to better understand road-induced tradeoffs and offer informed, evidence-based planning for road infrastructure development that minimizes environmental costs and maximizes socioeconomic benefits.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54269,"journal":{"name":"Environmental Development","volume":"54 ","pages":"Article 101177"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143422719","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

The interrelation among environmental quality, public accounts, and macroeconomic fundamentals: An analysis of OECD countries using machine learning techniques 环境质量、公共账户和宏观经济基本面之间的相互关系：使用机器学习技术对经合组织国家的分析

IF 4.7 2区环境科学与生态学

Environmental Development Pub Date : 2025-02-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101175

Cosimo Magazzino , Muhammad Haroon

{"title":"The interrelation among environmental quality, public accounts, and macroeconomic fundamentals: An analysis of OECD countries using machine learning techniques","authors":"Cosimo Magazzino , Muhammad Haroon","doi":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101175","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101175","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study explores the intricate relationships among environmental quality, public finance indicators, and socioeconomic variables in OECD countries, using Machine Learning (ML) techniques for the period 1990–2021. The research uniquely identifies key factors influencing renewable energy consumption (REC) by incorporating various public finance indices, macroeconomic fundamentals, trade measures, and socio-economic variables. By emphasizing the role of public debt policies, the study uncovers their significant yet complex and non-linear influence on renewable energy adoption. Unlike existing studies, this research utilizes Neural Networks (NN), a state-of-the-art ML technique, to generate robust and reliable outcomes. This methodological innovation sets the study apart by offering more accurate feature importance scores compared to traditional econometric methods. The findings advance our understanding of the crucial role that public finance plays in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG-7, and underscore the necessity of effective public debt management for fostering environmental sustainability. Policy implications drawn from the results provide actionable recommendations for governments to enhance REC adoption while achieving broader environmental goals.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54269,"journal":{"name":"Environmental Development","volume":"54 ","pages":"Article 101175"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143437398","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

From scavengers to managers: Doctrinal legal analysis and key informant perceptions to affect an e-waste legal regime in Sri Lanka 从拾荒者到管理者：影响斯里兰卡电子废物法律制度的理论法律分析和关键信息感知

IF 4.7 2区环境科学与生态学

Environmental Development Pub Date : 2025-02-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101172

Sujeewa Kumari , Deepthi Wickramasinghe , Sanath Wijesinghe , Michael Petterson , Julie Trafford

引用次数: 0

Regulating urban metabolism in semi-arid regions: Classification and valuation of urban open spaces ecosystem services in metropolitan Kano 半干旱区城市代谢调节：卡诺大都市城市开放空间生态系统服务功能分类与评价

IF 4.7 2区环境科学与生态学

Environmental Development Pub Date : 2025-02-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101165

Danjuma Abdu Yusuf , Jie Zhu , Chaw Thiri Khaing , Shafi'u Adamu , Hisham Sharif Bala

{"title":"Regulating urban metabolism in semi-arid regions: Classification and valuation of urban open spaces ecosystem services in metropolitan Kano","authors":"Danjuma Abdu Yusuf , Jie Zhu , Chaw Thiri Khaing , Shafi'u Adamu , Hisham Sharif Bala","doi":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101165","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101165","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>As urban landscapes in metropolitan Kano undergo significant transformations and face rapid decline, this study emphasizes the need for mindful and strategic interventions. It focuses on investigating the regulation of urban metabolism while purposefully identifying, classifying, and evaluating ecosystem services within 46 urban open spaces in the semi-arid region of Kano, Nigeria. The research is grounded in a systematic review of existing literature and empirical methodologies, including field surveys, inventory analysis, and principal component analysis (PCA). Through a typology framework and ecosystem service assessment models, the research identifies key indicators such as air quality enhancement, noise reduction, urban heat mitigation, water quality improvement, and hydrological infiltration. The analysis reveals significant variability in ecosystem service provision among diverse open space typologies, including woodlands, botanical gardens, pocket parks, transit spaces and cemeteries, emphasizing the essential role of green infrastructure in fostering urban resilience. Results show that urban open spaces with extensive natural vegetation exhibit the highest multi-functionality, particularly in regulating services, supporting biodiversity, and enhancing socio-ecological well-being. The study also proposes tailored optimization strategies for distinct urban open space types, addressing challenges related to urban metabolism and ecosystem disturbances. These findings contributes a comprehensive framework for urban stakeholders and policymakers to improve sustainability and resilience in semi-arid urban environments by integrating green infrastructure, enhancing land use efficiency, and fostering inclusive and adaptive management practices.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54269,"journal":{"name":"Environmental Development","volume":"54 ","pages":"Article 101165"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-02-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143429158","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0