Avian diseases最新文献

{"title":"Synergistic Effect of Adding Calcium Hydroxide and a Quaternary Ammonium Compound on the Degradation of Coccidia Oocysts by an Ortho-phenylphenol-Based Disinfectant.","authors":"Kazuaki Takehara, Shotaro Maehana, Hiroki Izawa, Makoto Kubo, Shunsuke Yamaguchi, Hiroki Matsumoto","doi":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-26-00001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1637/aviandiseases-D-26-00001","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Only a limited number of disinfectants are capable of inactivating coccidia oocysts, and in Japan, ortho-phenylphenol-based disinfectants (a combination of cresol and 1,2-dichlorobenzene) are mainly used. However, resistance of oocysts to ortho disinfectants has been reported. Previously, we demonstrated a synergistic enhancement of microbicidal activity by adding food-additive-grade calcium hydroxide with a mean particle size of 10 µm to a quaternary ammonium compound. In the present study, we found that the addition of calcium hydroxide and a quaternary ammonium compound to the ortho disinfectant synergistically and significantly enhanced its oocysticidal effect.</p>","PeriodicalId":516846,"journal":{"name":"Avian diseases","volume":"70 2","pages":"214-218"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148431804","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Necrotic Hepatitis Associated with <i>Phasianus Chaphamaparvovirus 1</i> and Coccidiosis Coinfection in Pheasant Chicks (<i>Phasianus colchicus</i>) in Bosnia and Herzegovina.","authors":"Ajla Hodžíć Boríć, Jovana Dervovíć, Alma Šeho-Alíć, Adis Softíć, Šejla Goletíć Imamovíć, Teufik Goletíć, Amer Alíć","doi":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00111","DOIUrl":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00111","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Phasianus chaphamaparvovirus 1</i> is a newly recognized pathogen associated with high mortality in young pheasant chicks with significant losses for pheasant breeders. Here we present an outbreak of necrotizing hepatitis with high mortality in a flock of young pheasant chicks in Bosnia and Herzegovina associated with <i>Phasianus chaphamaparvovirus 1</i> and coccidiosis coinfection. Severe necrotizing hepatitis with characteristic intranuclear inclusion bodies in affected hepatocytes was observed on microscopic examination. In addition, multifocal areas of intestinal mucosal necrosis with numerous developing stages (meronts) of coccidia were present. <i>Phasianus chaphamaparvovirus 1</i> was detected with qPCR from the livers of diseased birds. Our report represents the first data on the presence of this new virus in pheasant flocks in the Balkan region and suggests that the virus is widespread across Europe. It further supports the inclusion of <i>Chaphamaparvovirus</i> as a differential diagnosis of pheasant mortality outbreaks both in breeding facilities and in the wild.</p>","PeriodicalId":516846,"journal":{"name":"Avian diseases","volume":"70 2","pages":"235-239"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148431820","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Differentiation of Pathogenic from Nonpathogenic <i>Enterococcus cecorum</i> Field Isolates Based on the Detection of the <i>cpsO</i> Gene and Its Association with Macroscopic Lesions.","authors":"Marcela Arango, Rebecca Mackey, Jay Kay Thornton, Natalie Manginsay, Martha Pulido-Landinez","doi":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00001","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The clinical presentation of <i>Enterococcus cecorum</i> (EC)-associated systemic disease in broiler chickens is characterized by septicemia, lameness, and sometimes paralysis, typically affecting birds older than 4 wk of age. During the past few years, the incidence of this disease has increased worldwide. The detection of the <i>cpsO</i> gene was recently reported to successfully differentiate between pathogenic and commensal EC strains. This study aimed to evaluate the use of <i>cpsO</i> gene detection to differentiate pathogenic and nonpathogenic EC field isolates and to assess its association with macroscopic lesions observed in affected birds. <i>Enterococcus</i> spp. isolates (<i>n</i> = 348) recovered from necropsy cases submitted to the Mississippi State University's Poultry Research and Diagnostic Laboratory during 2023 were analyzed. Isolates originating from broiler breeders, layer breeders, hatcheries, and broiler chickens were included in this study. One hundred EC isolates were selected for phenotypic characterization and <i>cpsO</i> gene detection by PCR. EC was recovered from samples of the heart, joints, ovary, testicles, midgut, and ceca. The <i>cpsO</i> gene was detected in a high percentage (65%) of EC isolates recovered from broiler chickens, mainly from heart and femoral head lesions. In contrast, <i>cpsO</i> was detected infrequently in isolates from broiler breeders (10%) and was not detected in isolates recovered from intestinal samples or hatchery submissions. The presence of this gene was significantly associated with EC isolated from lesions observed in clinical disease cases, providing support for the pathogenic classification of these isolates. According to multiple literature reports, EC has been reported as a multidrug-resistant bacterium. However, in this study only a small percentage of isolates (3.4%) showed resistance to three or more classes of antimicrobials, and a high percentage of isolates (57%) were susceptible to all antimicrobials tested.</p>","PeriodicalId":516846,"journal":{"name":"Avian diseases","volume":"70 2","pages":"183-188"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148431759","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"<i>Listeria monocytogenes</i> Infection in a Chicken (<i>Gallus gallus domesticus</i>): Pathology and Diagnostic Challenges.","authors":"Emily Frye, Megan Lighty, Maurice Byukusenge, Philma Glora Muthuraj, Kayla Niel","doi":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00089","DOIUrl":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00089","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This case report details listeriosis in a chicken from a public botanic garden and the ancillary testing required to confirm <i>Listeria monocytogenes.</i> A 6-mo-old female Barred Plymouth Rock chicken, found deceased within its flock at a public botanic garden, was submitted to The Pennsylvania State University Animal Diagnostic Laboratory for postmortem examination. The clinical history included bloody feces, weight loss, and pallor prior to death. On postmortem examination, the chicken was emaciated with vent fecal staining. Gross lesions suggested bacterial septicemia, including necrotic fibrinous hepatitis, peritonitis, myocarditis, and pancreatitis. The heart was rounded, with pericardial effusion and a focal, dry, white bulging area around the left ventricle. Ulceration of the gizzard mucosa, severe, focal, unilateral cecal dilation, and ulceration with hemorrhage and necrosis were supportive of gastroenteritis and typhlitis. Differential diagnoses included lymphoid neoplasia, chronic coccidial or bacterial enteritis or typhlitis, bacterial septicemia, and mycobacteriosis. On histology, major findings included granulomatous myocarditis and endocarditis, as well as transmural coccidial enteritis and typhlitis. Preliminary results from ancillary testing confirmed severe coccidiosis and bacterial myocarditis. Although matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry identified nonpathogenic <i>Listeria innocua</i>, the severity of the heart lesions and the hemolysis observed on culture suggested a pathogenic species. Whole-genome sequencing confirmed the presence of <i>L. monocytogenes,</i> rather than the <i>L. innocua</i> incorrectly identified by MALDI-TOF. This case highlights the presentation of listeriosis in a chicken, the importance of confirmatory testing in the face of equivocal results, and potential disease risks in public spaces shared with avian species.</p>","PeriodicalId":516846,"journal":{"name":"Avian diseases","volume":"70 2","pages":"240-248"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148430974","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A novel IBV Lineage within Genotype GVII (GVII-2) Representing a Unique Serotype Circulating in Chicken Flocks in China.","authors":"Bing Wang, Xiaona Zhang, Zongxi Han, Huixin Li, Junfeng Sun, Shengwang Liu","doi":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00027","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00027","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In the present study, we report the detection of a novel infectious bronchitis virus lineage within genotypes GVII (GVII-2) in commercial flocks in China since 2008. Virus strains within this lineage have been isolated from different geographic regions in China. S1 genes of these viruses have an intralineage divergence of 0.2%-4.4% nucleotides and 0.1%-7.5% amino acids. The pairwise distances of nucleotide and amino acid sequences based on the S1 subunit between GVII-2 and the closest GVII-1 were 28.3% -28.8% and 28.1%-28.9%, respectively. Complete genomic sequence analysis of the first detected strain, ck/CH/LAH/08I (LAH/08I), suggested that it is derived from recombination events with a genomic backbone of the GI-19 ck/CH/LGS/08I-like strain and distinct S, 3a, and 5a genes. The GVII-2 strain represents a unique serotype that differs from the GVII-1 I0636/16 strain in the same genotype and its deduced parental virus GI-19 I0305/19. Strain LAH/08I not only showed strong tissue tropism in the kidneys of SPF chickens but also exhibited high replication capacities in the trachea, kidney, digestive tract, and immune system of infected chickens, attributed to its pathogenicity in SPF chickens. Strain LAH/08I also showed tropism in the oviducts and the ability to induce cystic oviduct formation in adult chickens after infection in baby chicks.</p>","PeriodicalId":516846,"journal":{"name":"Avian diseases","volume":"70 2","pages":"174-182"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148431630","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Marek's Disease in France: Ten Cases of Central Nervous System Syndromes.","authors":"Matthieu Pinson, Manuela Crispo, Lilou Bortot, Olivier Albaric, Benoit Sraka, Charles Facon, Guillaume Perreul, Thomas Delquigny, Stéphane Lemière, Catherine Belloc, Jean-Luc Guérin","doi":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00077","DOIUrl":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00077","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Between 2017 and 2019, 10 broiler flocks, with birds exhibiting neck paralysis, nervous tics, and torticollis, were submitted for necropsy and additional tests. These neurologic signs were mostly observed in certified, nonvaccinated broilers (8 of 10), ranging between 45 and 56 days of age. No specific lesions were described at macroscopic examination. Histopathology revealed moderate to severe lymphocytic infiltration of the central nervous system (CNS). In addition, peripheral nerves and visceral organs were commonly affected, although less severely. Immunohistochemistry identified the infiltrating lymphocytes as CD3⁺ T cells, and Marek's disease (MD) virus was detected by real-time PCR in brain formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded samples in all flocks. In conclusion, MD is still a concern in France. The occurrence of MD CNS syndromes should be considered in commercial broilers starting from 6 wk of age because these conditions could compromise the health and welfare of affected birds. Poultry veterinarians should be aware of this atypical form of MD to ensure proper diagnosis and assess the impact of the disease, especially in nonvaccinated chicken flocks.</p>","PeriodicalId":516846,"journal":{"name":"Avian diseases","volume":"70 2","pages":"219-223"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148431713","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigating Acute-Phase Proteins in Feces of Broiler Chickens Undergoing Necrotic Enteritis: A Potential Tool for Assessment and Monitoring.","authors":"Mahmoud A Mahmoud, Vinicius Buiatte, Craig R Baumrucker, Dervan Bryan, Monika Proszkowiec-Weglarz, Katarzyna Miska, Mark Jenkins, Christopher C Chadwick, Alberto Gino Lorenzoni","doi":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-24-00096","DOIUrl":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-24-00096","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Necrotic enteritis (NE) is a prevalent bacterial disease in the broiler industry caused by <i>Clostridium perfringens</i>. Current monitoring and diagnostics for NE rely on invasive necropsy and subjective lesion scoring. This study introduces fecal acute-phase proteins (APPs) as novel, noninvasive biomarkers for NE, an understudied approach offering objective, scalable monitoring in poultry health. APPs, secreted by the liver and innate immune cells during inflammation and injury, can offer potential insights into disease development. A total of 276 Ross 308 male broilers were divided into four treatments: negative control (NC; uninfected birds fed a grower corn-soybean-based diet); positive control (PC; uninfected birds fed a diet containing wheat, fish meal, and lard referred to here as the proinflammatory diet); coccidiosis (cocci; birds infected with <i>Eimeria maxima</i> fed a proinflammatory diet); and NE (birds coinfected with <i>E. maxima</i> and <i>C. perfringens</i> fed a proinflammatory diet). On Day 21, birds from all treatments were randomly selected and euthanized to collect colon content and evaluate lesion scores, and 64 samples were selected for APP fecal evaluation. Proteins were extracted by using NP-40 lysis buffer, and commercial sandwich ELISAs were conducted to measure the concentrations of the APPs. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA, the Tukey test was used to compare means among treatments and groups, and significance was declared when <i>P</i> ≤ 0.05. Calprotectin (MRP-126) concentrations increased about fivefold from NC to PC (<i>P</i> < 0.0001), ∼120-fold from NC to cocci (<i>P</i> < 0.0001), and ∼320-fold from NC to NE (<i>P</i> < 0.0001). The C-reactive protein (CRP) increased about twofold from NC to PC (<i>P</i> = 0.0366), ∼10-fold from NC to NE scores 2-3 (<i>P</i> < 0.0001), and ∼100-fold from NC to NE scores 4-5 (<i>P</i> < 0.0001). These findings underscore the potential of MRP-126 and CRP as fecal biomarkers for screening and detecting inflammation associated with NE in broiler chickens.</p>","PeriodicalId":516846,"journal":{"name":"Avian diseases","volume":"70 1","pages":"32-41"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147680107","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Congenital Cervical Vertebral Malformations and Recurrent Bacterial Infections in Chickens Associated with <i>In Ovo</i> Vaccination Equipment Malfunction.","authors":"Anaïs Fournier-Leclaire, Annie Borduas, Yasmine Boumati, Sonia Chénier","doi":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00056","DOIUrl":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00056","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>In ovo</i> vaccination is an effective method of immunization that allows protection early in the life of the chick but requires precision during the administration. This present report describes an occurrence of cervical vertebral malformations in broiler chicks that coincide with mechanical failure of an <i>in ovo</i> vaccination system, in the absence of other detected infectious, nutritional, or toxic etiologies. Cervical scoliosis was observed in 2%-8% of chicks at hatch or within days post hatch in the affected flock, which all came from the same hatchery. Gross and histologic examination of eleven 30-day-old chickens revealed a cervical vertebral misalignment and fusion of the articular cartilage of adjacent vertebrae, with spinal cord compression, without evidence of inflammation. It is hypothesized that a malfunctioning <i>in ovo</i> vaccine injector with a bent needle might have caused mechanical trauma during the injection at day 18 of incubation, possibly contributing to the lesions observed in the chickens. Recurrent <i>Enterococcus faecalis</i> and <i>Escherichia coli</i> infections were also recorded in young chicks, a problem that persisted during the lifespan of the flock, possibly induced by compromised hygiene from the defective injector. These findings indicate that <i>in ovo</i> vaccination equipment malfunction could represent an underrecognized contributing factor to vertebral deformities in chicks.</p>","PeriodicalId":516846,"journal":{"name":"Avian diseases","volume":"70 1","pages":"140-145"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147679903","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"<i>Clostridium septicum</i> Alpha Toxin-Based Recombinant Subunit Vaccine Protects Broiler Chickens Against Clostridial Dermatitis.","authors":"Carissa Gaghan, Becky Tran, Abigail Armwood, Anil J Thachil, Rodolphe Barrangou, Sarah O'Flaherty, Raveendra R Kulkarni","doi":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00099","DOIUrl":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00099","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Clostridial dermatitis (CD), caused by <i>Clostridium septicum</i>, is an economically important disease of broiler chickens, specifically in flocks raised without antibiotics. Our previous work in turkeys identified a nontoxic domain no. 2 of <i>C. septicum</i> alpha-toxin (ntATX-D2) as a protective vaccine antigen. In the present study, we used a prime-boost immunization regimen to vaccinate broiler chickens subcutaneously with recombinant ntATX-D2 protein followed by a challenge with virulent <i>C. septicum</i> to assess protective immunity. Immunization led to clinical protection, as determined by a significant increase in the body weight gain and a reduction in the gross and histopathological lesions in the skin, subcutis, and skeletal muscle of immunized chickens compared to the unimmunized group. Furthermore, immunological investigation of protective immunity in immunized birds when compared to the unimmunized control group revealed 1) higher levels of antigen-specific serum IgY antibodies, 2) modulation of inflammatory responses in the skin and muscle of immunized chickens, as indicated by transcriptional downregulation of proinflammatory cytokine (IL-1β, IL-6, and IFNγ) and upregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10 and TGFβ) genes, and 3) increased γδ T cell, B cell, and activated T-cell frequencies in the spleen and peripheral blood of immunized birds. Collectively, our findings indicated that ntATX-D2 vaccination of broiler chickens can provide protection against <i>C. septicum-</i>induced CD and that the mechanisms of protection seem to operate through anti-ATX antibodies coupled with modulation of local and systemic inflammatory as well as cellular immune responses.</p>","PeriodicalId":516846,"journal":{"name":"Avian diseases","volume":"70 1","pages":"69-81"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147679866","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evaluation of the Efficacy of Different Vaccination Programs Using Two Live <i>Salmonella</i> Vaccines Against <i>Salmonella</i> Enteritidis, <i>Salmonella</i> Typhimurium, and <i>Salmonella</i> Gallinarum in Brown Layer Hens.","authors":"Rafael Casarin Penha Filho, Jaime Sarabia, Luiz Sesti, Pascal Paulet","doi":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00037","DOIUrl":"10.1637/aviandiseases-D-25-00037","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Attenuated live <i>Salmonella</i> vaccines are available for controlling this pathogen in poultry. Due to the wide variety of serovars, cross-protection is a matter of debate. This study evaluated five different vaccination programs combining two live vaccines, with focus on cross-protection against challenges with <i>Salmonella enterica</i> serovar Enteritidis (SE), <i>Salmonella enterica</i> serovar Gallinarum biovar Gallinarum (SG), and <i>Salmonella enterica</i> serovar Typhimurium (ST) strains. Vaccination with a SG9R live vaccine in combination with an attenuated SE strain showed the highest levels of protection against all three serovars. Vaccination with the attenuated SE vaccine alone significantly reduced the systemic infection, as evidenced by the complete absence of SE in spleen and liver samples at 7 and 10 days post challenge, and by up to a 2-log reduction of ST in spleen. Unvaccinated chickens exhibited higher fecal shedding of SE and ST. Challenge with pathogenic SG resulted in up to 87.5% mortality in unvaccinated chickens and 42% mortality in birds vaccinated only with the SE vaccine. In contrast, no mortality occurred in groups vaccinated with SG9R, whether administered alone or in combination with SE vaccine. All vaccinated birds showed reduced degeneration of internal organs and were able to mount a timely cellular and humoral immune response, mitigating the impact of fowl typhoid. The use of two different vaccine strains in the same program had no deleterious effects; on the contrary, it contributed to complementary immune responses, enhancing overall protection.</p>","PeriodicalId":516846,"journal":{"name":"Avian diseases","volume":"70 1","pages":"57-68"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147680048","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}