SAE Technical Paper Series最新文献

{"title":"A New Design Rule of Engine Coolant Pump in ICEs Focused to Energy Consumption Reduction","authors":"M. Di Bartolomeo, Davide Di Battista, R. Cipollone, F. Fremondi, Umberto Camagni","doi":"10.4271/2024-37-0015","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-37-0015","url":null,"abstract":"Engine thermal management systems represent a promising solution to improve the efficiency of current Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) and sustain the transition towards a net zero scenario. The core component of an engine thermal management system is the electric pump, which can adjust the coolant flow rate according to the engine thermal needs. This possibility opens to newer design choices, which can contribute to non-negligible energy savings. In this study, three electric coolant pumps with different maximum efficiencies have been investigated to understand the influence of the design operating conditions on the pump energy absorption. A reference vehicle equipping a 130 HP downsized gasoline engine has been considered. An experimental test bench with a copy of the engine and its cooling circuit has been reproduced, and the electric pumps have been tested at a wide range of rotational speeds and thermostat lifts to obtain their characteristic maps. Once their performances were known, the vehicle was run in three driving cycles consisting of different shares of rural, urban and highway sections, acquiring data from the Electronic Control Unit (ECU). These data have been used to calculate the operating condition and energy absorption of the mechanical pump originally equipped by the vehicle and the electric pumps. The results have been evaluated using a statistical approach, normalizing the instantaneous efficiency by using their maximum efficiency values. The results show that all the electric pumps have lower energy absorption compared to the conventional mechanical actuation, with a reduction of up to 77% of the energy absorption. Considering the vehicle's fuel consumption and the lower heating value of gasoline, the potential reduction of CO2 specific emissions is 1 g/km. The statistical analysis approach showed that the design operating conditions have a higher influence than the maximum pump efficiency. The best performances are achieved through the electric pump with the lowest efficiency, showing a decrease in energy absorption between 10 % and 50% compared to the other electric prototypes, depending on the driving profile.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"73 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141350386","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Comparison of Performance and Efficiency of Different Refrigerants at High Load Conditions and their Impact on CO2eq Emissions","authors":"Christian Macrì, Álvaro De León, Felix Flohr","doi":"10.4271/2024-37-0029","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-37-0029","url":null,"abstract":"For battery-electric vehicles (BEVs), the climate control and the driving range are crucial criteria in the ongoing electrification of automobiles in Europe towards the targeted carbon neutrality of the automotive industry. The thermal management system makes an important contribution to the energy efficiency and the cabin comfort of the vehicle. In addition to the system architecture, the refrigerant is crucial to achieve high cooling and heating performance while maintaining high efficiency and thus low energy consumption. Due to the high efficiency requirements for the vehicle, future system architectures will largely be heat pump systems.The alternative refrigerant R-474A based on the molecule R-1132(E) achieved top performance for both parameters in various system and vehicle tests. An own-built energy efficiency tool was used to determine the possible energy reduction of R-474A in comparison to refrigerant alternatives that can be translated in a CO2 reduction of the thermal management as part of the overall vehicle CO2 footprint reduction.The results served as the basis for an efficiency study comparing the refrigerant R-474A against systems with pure R-1234yf and R-744 in a BEV in both cooling mode (AC mode) and heating mode (HP mode). The analysis was carried out with a focus on the performance and efficiency of thermal management under different climatic conditions and considering different driving cycles. The results of the most recent investigations and the study will be presented in this paper.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"16 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141349884","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Transient Numerical Analysis of a Dissipative Expansion Chamber Muffler","authors":"P. Maurerlehner, D. Mayrhofer, M. Mehrgou, Manfred Kaltenbacher, S. Schoder","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2935","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2935","url":null,"abstract":"Expansion chamber mufflers are commonly applied to reduce noise in heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) or exhaust systems. In dissipative mufflers, sound-absorptive materials, such as microperforated plates (MPP), are applied to achieve an enhanced and more broadband mitigation effect. Computational acoustics (CA) analyses of mufflers are usually carried out in the frequency domain, assuming time-harmonic excitation. However, certain applications require time-domain simulations. From a computational point of view, such transient analyses are more challenging. A transformation of the governing equations involving frequency-dependent material parameters into the time domain induces convolution integrals. We apply the recently proposed finite element (FE) formulation of a time-domain equivalent fluid (TDEF) model to simulate the transient response of dissipative acoustic media to arbitrary unsteady excitation. Like most time-domain approaches, the formulation relies on approximating the frequency-dependent equivalent fluid parameters by a sum of rational functions composed of real-valued and complex-conjugated poles. The arising convolution integrals are computed indirectly by solving a set of ordinary auxiliary differential equations (ADE) coupled to the scalar wave equation, according to the ADE method. The numerical study of a dissipative expansion chamber muffler with an MPP reveals that the characteristics of transient excitation fundamentally differ from the known time-harmonic behavior because the characteristic quarter-wavelength resonance cannot evolve. Negligible thermal losses allow the use of a constant, real-valued equivalent bulk modulus. The low rational approximation order of the equivalent density entails an increase of computational degrees of freedom induced by the proposed TDEF approach for the given problem by less than 7% compared to the frequency domain formulation.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"88 11","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141352843","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Advanced H2 ICE Development Aiming for Full Compatibility with Classical Engines While Ensuring Zero-Impact Tailpipe Emissions","authors":"Thomas Koerfer, Thomas Durand, Hartwig Busch","doi":"10.4271/2024-37-0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-37-0006","url":null,"abstract":"Current GHG emissions are rebounding from an intermediate decline during the economic downturn caused by the Covid-19 pandemic. To get back on track to support the realization of the formulated goals of the Paris Agreement, scientific communities suggest that worldwide GHG emissions should be roughly halved by 2030 on a trajectory to reach net zero by around mid-century. Carbon neutrality imposes substantial changes in our energy mix. Hydrogen (H2) is considered to play a key role as a carbon-free and versatile energy carrier for all kinds of applications and use cases.Considering the high technological maturity of internal combustion engines (ICEs), the interest in ICEs powered by hydrogen as a CO2-free solution is rising worldwide.The content of this publication displays the necessary engineering steps to successfully convert a diesel-based engine to H2 DI operation. In this context, upfront simulations work dictated the newly designed combustion system layout and the associated exhaust aftertreatment topology that fulfils the requirements for an appropriate level of charge motion for favorable raw emission levels and thermal efficiencies. To keep development cost low while leveraging the maturity of the base Diesel engine parts, a maximum degree of communality with the given Diesel base engine and its flat cylinder head design was decided. The obtained results demonstrate the significant potentials of the hydrogen engine technology towards future needs.The engine KPI are matching the ones from the diesel base engine while offering a near-zero emission concept thanks to the alignment of engine control and aftertreatment system calibration. Remarkable experimental results regarding emissions at zero impact level, high specific power, dynamic response, and efficiency are presented as well as further potentials and needs for the following research and development work.The technical paper closes with a direct comparison of the key functional data of the origin Diesel engine and the newly engineered H2-powered variant for two target applications in the field of on- and off-highway installations.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"72 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141353220","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental Study of Lignin Fuels for CI Engines","authors":"Motoki Terauchi, Tor Simonsen, Simon Mortensen, Jesper Schramm, Anders Ivarsson","doi":"10.4271/2024-37-0022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-37-0022","url":null,"abstract":"This study explores the feasibility of using a sustainable lignin-based fuel, consisting of 44 % lignin, 50 % ethanol, and 6 % water, in conventional compression ignition (CI) marine engines. Through experimental evaluations on a modified small-bore CI engine, we identified the primary challenges associated with lignin-based fuel, including engine startup and shutdown issues due to solvent evaporation and lignin solidification inside the fuel system, and deposit formation on cylinder walls leading to piston ring seizure. To address these issues, we developed a fuel switching system transitioning from lignin-based fuel to cleaning fuel with 85 vol% of acetone, 10 vol% of water and 5 vol% of ignition improving additive, effectively preventing system clogs. Additionally, optimizing injection parameters, adopting a constant pressure delivery valve, and fine-tuning injection timing mitigated lignin deposit formation related to incomplete combustion or spray tip penetration to the cylinder wall. The successful combustion of the lignin-based fuel in the small-bored CI engine was confirmed in a wide range of chamber temperatures. The ignition delay was measured and analyzed using Arrhenius equation. The ignition quality of the lignin fuel was comparable with 1-pentanol with a cetane number of 18.2, which is acceptable for 2-stroke marine engines. Although further investigation is needed to assess long-term reliability, our findings underscore the potential of lignin-based fuel as a viable alternative fuel for marine engines.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"50 10","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141355125","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring Methanol and Naphtha as Alternative Fuels for a Hybrid-ICE Battery-Driven Light-Duty Vehicle","authors":"Erasmo Iñiguez, Javier Marco-Gimeno, J. Monsalve-Serrano, Antonio Garcia","doi":"10.4271/2024-37-0021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-37-0021","url":null,"abstract":"In pursuing sustainable automotive technologies, exploring alternative fuels for hybrid vehicles is crucial in reducing environmental impact and aligning with global carbon emission reduction goals. This work compares methanol and naphtha as potential suitable alternative fuels for running in a battery-driven light-duty hybrid vehicle by comparing their performance with the diesel baseline engine. This work employs a 0-D vehicle simulation model within the GT-Power suite to replicate vehicle dynamics under the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC). The vehicle choice enables the assessment of a delivery application scenario using distinct cargo capacities: 0%, 50%, and 100%. The model is fed with engine maps derived from previous experimental work conducted in the same engine, in which a full calibration was obtained that ensures the engine's operability in a wide region of rotational speed and loads. The calibration suggested that the engine could operate in a selected region where both the fuel consumption and emissions were optimal to reduce the environmental impact significantly compared to its diesel counterpart. The results show that the operation at higher engine speeds and loads to charge the battery and the engine running with naphtha or methanol significantly reduces the NOx emissions and the overall CO2 impact. Additionally, the study highlights that the challenges associated with using pure methanol in a compression ignition engine at low-load conditions are substantially mitigated in a hybrid setup, which assists in engine start-up and stabilization, facilitating optimal operational efficiency.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"50 24","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141355244","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Study on the Sound Design of a Sporty Vehicle","authors":"L. Celiberti, L. Borgarello, Vanni Falasca, Francesco Lolli, Alessandra Meriga, Piercarlo Miglietta, M. Soldati","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2964","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2964","url":null,"abstract":"<div class=\"section abstract\"><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">From a Noise Vibration Harshness (NVH) perspective, electric vehicles represent a great opportunity since the noise of the combustion engine, dominant in many driving conditions, is no longer present. On the other hand, drivers accustomed to driving cars with a strong personality (for example typically sporty ones) may perceive \"silence\" as a lack of character. Our internal study, conducted with a jury of people, has in fact already shown that for half of customers silence should characterize (Battery Electric Vehicle - BEV) vehicle; but, at the same time, the other half of the jury expects feedback from the vehicle while driving. The silence inside the passenger compartment, from an NVH point of view, can therefore be compared to a blank sheet of paper, on which, if desired, sounds designed to satisfy the driving pleasure expected by the customer can be introduced.</div><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">Starting from this scenario, the paper describes:\u0000<ul class=\"list disc\"><li class=\"list-item\"><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">the approach adopted to define how many and what are the levers to design a good sound for our customers driving a sporty vehicle</div></li><li class=\"list-item\"><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">the engineering guidelines to achieve the desired sound</div></li></ul></div><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">The process followed is a structured flow based on:\u0000<ul class=\"list disc\"><li class=\"list-item\"><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">several focus groups, with experts from different company departments, to define the main dimensions of the sound that can characterize a BEV sporty vehicle for our customers</div></li><li class=\"list-item\"><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">subjective evaluations, expressed according to aspects coming from the focus groups, based on acoustic traces recorded on different BEV vehicles with sound enhancement</div></li><li class=\"list-item\"><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">analysis of objective data and comparison with the main results of the analysis of subjective data</div></li></ul></div><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">As a conclusion and main result, engineering guidelines and directions will be presented to create a good sound for a BEV sport vehicle.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"14 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141355272","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Potential of Hydrogen High Pressure Direct Injection toward Future Emissions Compliance: Optimizing Engine-Out NOx and Thermal Efficiency","authors":"R. Willems, X. Seykens, Cemil Bekdemir, E. Doosje, Peter Van Gompel","doi":"10.4271/2024-37-0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-37-0005","url":null,"abstract":"By building on mature internal combustion engine (ICE) hardware combined with dedicated hydrogen (H2) technology, the H2-ICE has excellent potential to accelerate CO2 reduction. H2-ICE concepts can therefore contribute to realizing the climate targets in an acceptable timeframe. In the landscape of H2-ICE concepts, pilot-ignited High Pressure Direct Injection (HPDI™) is an attractive option considering its high thermal efficiency, wide load range and its applicability to on-road as well as off-road heavy-duty equipment. Still, H2-HPDI is characterized by diffusion combustion, giving rise to significant NOx emissions. In this paper, the potential of H2-HPDI toward compliance with future emissions legislation is explored on a 1.8L single-cylinder research engine. With tests on multiple load-speed points, Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) was shown to be an effective measure for reducing engine-out NOx, although at the cost of a few efficiency points. Furthermore, the use of EGR was compared to water injection in the intake port. Water injection displayed a substantially weaker NOx reduction sensitivity, owing in part to a relatively low injection pressure applied in these tests, causing poor water atomization and evaporation. Finally, injection timing sweeps showed that the gross indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) still approached or surpassed 50% for most load-speed points with EGR. At higher loads, where peak pressures constraint the injection advance, ITE was lowest. While further development steps are necessary to ensure compliance, this work demonstrates that H2-HPDI has good potential for meeting upcoming NOx legislative levels, with a potential ITE comparable to, or perhaps even better than, that of modern diesel engines.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"35 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141354092","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessment of Equivalent Properties for Flat Multilayered Panels","authors":"Diego M. Tuozzo, N. Atalla","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2943","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2943","url":null,"abstract":"Within homogenization techniques, an equivalent properties strategy can be utilized to equivalently represent complex structures into simple ones. This work aims to highlight the limitations of three strategies using a single layer flat panel to represent the vibro-acoustics of flat multilayered structures. The presented limitations provide insight into the potential applicability of this strategy in complex heterogeneous structures. Equivalent material properties and equivalent stiffness coefficients are obtained from the dispersion curves of the reference structures and thereafter utilized to build an equivalent simple structure. To demonstrate the accuracy and limitations of the homogenization strategies, three carefully selected flat multilayered structures are presented. The particular effects of asymmetry, orthotropy, soft core and high damping (structural loss factor, η > 0.5) in multilayered structures are addressed. A wave and forced analysis is performed utilizing the General Laminate Model (GLM) and four different vibro-acoustic indicators (total energy, input and radiated power, as well as diffuse field transmission loss) are computed and compared with reference solutions. The comparisons show that, in general, a single layer plate can equivalently represent flat multilayered structures within the studied frequency range ([50 Hz, 5 kHz]). Inaccuracies of the proposed strategies are also discussed, highlighting the challenge of correctly homogenizing structures with soft core and, in particular, high damping.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"126 45","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141351659","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reduced Order Model for Modal Analysis of Electric Motors Considering Material and Dimensional Variations","authors":"Panagiotis Andreou, S. Theodossiades, Amal Z. Hajjaj, M. Mohammadpour, Marcos Ricardo Souza","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2945","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2945","url":null,"abstract":"With the electrification of the automotive industry, electric motors have emerged as pivotal components. A profound understanding of their vibrational behaviour stands as a cornerstone for guaranteeing not only the optimal performance and reliability of vehicles in terms of noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH), but also the overall driving experience. The use of conventional finite element analysis (FEA) techniques for identification of the natural frequencies characteristics of electric motors often imposes significant computational loads, particularly when accurate material and geometrical properties and wider frequency ranges are considered. On the other hand, traditional reduced order vibroacoustic methodologies utilising simplified 2D representations, introduce several assumptions regarding boundary conditions and properties, leading to sacrifices in the accuracy of the results. To address these limitations, this study presents a novel electric motor modal analysis approach by employing a reduced order 3D thick cylindrical model that accommodates bi-directional variations in both material properties and dimensions, to accurately represent a real stator/ frame assembly. The model is derived directly from the 3D elasticity equations, and expressions are developed for different combinations of boundary conditions. The method’s effectiveness is demonstrated through comparative studies with full FEA simulations data showing excellent agreement. The outcome of this study is a powerful yet highly computationally efficient, modal analysis tool, with reduced set-up complexity, that will ultimately aid engineers in the design and optimisation of electric powertrains in early prediction of the system’s natural frequencies during initial design stages.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"46 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141350531","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}