Journal of advanced education studies最新文献

LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNERS: TURKISH LANGUAGE CASE 外语学习者的语言学习策略：土耳其语案例

Journal of advanced education studies Pub Date : 2024-01-16 DOI: 10.48166/ejaes.1407747

Sami Baskin

{"title":"LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNERS: TURKISH LANGUAGE CASE","authors":"Sami Baskin","doi":"10.48166/ejaes.1407747","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.48166/ejaes.1407747","url":null,"abstract":"Strategies are learning paths that make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more directed, more effective and more easily transferable to a new situation. Within this scope, the aim of this study is to determine the learning strategies used by foreign language learners. Therefore, case study design was preferred. The data collected form 15 foreign students through observation and interviews to reach detailed findings. Participants were determined by criterion sampling, which is a subtype of purposive sampling method. The data obtained from the observation form, researcher's notes and interview reports were evaluated by descriptive analysis and were categorized as memory, cognitive, compensatory, metacognitive, affective and social strategies. According to the results, each student's strategy preference and frequency varies regarding to the student's personality traits, comprehension level, language level, socio-cultural characteristics, gender, mother tongue, and the subject learned. Moreover, students prefer memory, cognitive, and compensation direct strategies more than metacognitive, social, and affective indirect strategies. This study theoretically extends the conceptual frameworks of previous measures of language learning strategies from English language learning to L2 Turkish language learning. Important pedagogical and educational implications are provided for L2 Turkish educators to encourage L2 Turkish learners to explore their own learning strategies.","PeriodicalId":471129,"journal":{"name":"Journal of advanced education studies","volume":" 43","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139618527","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Evaluation of Preschool Teachers' Neurophysiological Perception Levels: Mersin Province Example 幼儿教师神经生理知觉水平评价:以梅尔辛省为例

Journal of advanced education studies Pub Date : 2023-11-03 DOI: 10.48166/ejaes.1379711

Hakan UZUN, Zühal GİZİR

{"title":"Evaluation of Preschool Teachers' Neurophysiological Perception Levels: Mersin Province Example","authors":"Hakan UZUN, Zühal GİZİR","doi":"10.48166/ejaes.1379711","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.48166/ejaes.1379711","url":null,"abstract":"This research, which was conducted to determine the neurophysiological perception levels of preschool teachers towards behavior, learning and cognitive processes, was designed in a screening model. The Neurophysiological Learning Perception Scale (NAÖ) developed by Sülün, Aydoğdu, Taşçı and Şimşek (2014) was used to obtain data in this research, where the sample consisted of 200 pre-school teachers working in official institutions affiliated with the Ministry of National Education in the central districts of Mersin province. In addition, the General Information Form prepared by the researcher was distributed to the teachers. In data analysis, Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests were performed to test normality. Mann-Whitney ut-test was used for significance tests between groups, and Kruskal-Wallis Htest was used to compare more than two groups. As a result of the research, the participants considered the information about the brain as valuable information, they did not have sufficient knowledge about neurophysiology, it would be useful for them if they went through education, and that it would be useful in the fields of participation in the lesson, student attitude towards the lesson, permanence in learning and academic success. As a result of the research, it was understood that the participants believed in the positive relationship between the brain and learning, that age and professional experience did not affect neurophysiological perception, but as the level of education increased, a more positive perception occurred.","PeriodicalId":471129,"journal":{"name":"Journal of advanced education studies","volume":"32 8","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-11-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135873117","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS IN TERMS OF CREATIVE THINKING AND CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS 中学科学教材中创造性思维与批判性思维能力的考察

Journal of advanced education studies Pub Date : 2023-11-02 DOI: 10.48166/ejaes.1366388

Ayşegül BAŞDUVAR, Gülsüm GÖK, Ali GÖK

{"title":"AN INVESTIGATION OF THE MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS IN TERMS OF CREATIVE THINKING AND CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS","authors":"Ayşegül BAŞDUVAR, Gülsüm GÖK, Ali GÖK","doi":"10.48166/ejaes.1366388","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.48166/ejaes.1366388","url":null,"abstract":"The aim of this study is to investigate creative thinking and critical thinking skills through the tasks contained in 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th-grade science textbooks in the 2020-2021 academic year. The research utilized document analysis as a qualitative method, and data were collected through the descriptive analysis method. In this study, themes related to creative and critical thinking skills were utilized from the '21st Century Learning and Innovation Skills Themes' developed by the researchers as the data collection tool to assess textbooks. The themes were generated based on a review of literature and verified by experts. The status of both skills in the textbooks was presented in tables for years and tasks; Science Engineering Applications and Activities. Although the number of Science Engineering Applications are lower than activities, they are more promising for these skills. The low frequency of themes emphasizing problems in both skills indicates a lack of challenging situations. The reason for the low frequency of themes in activities is that they primarily take the form of demonstration activities where students passive through auditory and visual means. As the years progress, both the number of tasks and the intensity of themes with which these tasks incorporate increases.","PeriodicalId":471129,"journal":{"name":"Journal of advanced education studies","volume":"59 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-11-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135934680","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

A STUDY ON CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IN DISTANCE EDUCATION DURING AND AFTER THE EARTHQUAKE 地震中及震后远程教育课堂管理研究

Journal of advanced education studies Pub Date : 2023-10-16 DOI: 10.48166/ejaes.1354021

Fatma Hümeyra YÜCEL

{"title":"A STUDY ON CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IN DISTANCE EDUCATION DURING AND AFTER THE EARTHQUAKE","authors":"Fatma Hümeyra YÜCEL","doi":"10.48166/ejaes.1354021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.48166/ejaes.1354021","url":null,"abstract":"Following the earthquake centered in Kahramanmaraş on February 6, 2023, the Council of Higher Education throughout Turkey decided to carry out education and training activities through distance education. In the study, the perceptions of classroom management in distance education of the students who received pedagogical formation training after the earthquake process and the effects of the earthquake in online courses were measured. The research was prepared in qualitative research type and designed in accordance with descriptive and content analysis. The data were provided with two sections consisting of personal and theoretical information and a semi-structured form containing a total of 8 statements, and the opinions of 163 participants were used. In line with the results obtained, \"distance education\" was found to be moderately efficient. According to the classroom management after the earthquake process, the positive situations encountered in distance education courses were determined as \"motivation\", \"positive classroom atmosphere and interaction\", \"course presentation forms of the instructors\", and the negative situations emerged as \"inability to focus on the course during the course\" and \"worrisome attitudes\". After the earthquake process, the positive effects of distance education on online courses were stated as \"recording of the courses and being traceable afterward\", \"course content and documents are already in the system\", \"being economical in terms of money and time\", and the negative effects were \"the intensity of the courses on the same days\", \"internet and systemic problems\". It was observed that there were significant differences between the students who were exposed to the earthquake and those who were not. At the end of the research, some suggestions were made to reduce the possible effects of the earthquake on lecturers and university students and to increase the effectiveness of online courses.","PeriodicalId":471129,"journal":{"name":"Journal of advanced education studies","volume":"28 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136113964","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

SCHOOL HOLIDAYS FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF TEACHERS 从教师的角度看学校假期

Journal of advanced education studies Pub Date : 2023-10-16 DOI: 10.48166/ejaes.1324490

Ayşegül ATALAY, Yasemin KARAMAN KEPENEKCİ

{"title":"SCHOOL HOLIDAYS FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF TEACHERS","authors":"Ayşegül ATALAY, Yasemin KARAMAN KEPENEKCİ","doi":"10.48166/ejaes.1324490","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.48166/ejaes.1324490","url":null,"abstract":"It is almost universally accepted that teachers have a heavy workload. Despite this, the perception that teachers have long school holidays and ample free time during the day has become a stereotype. From this perspective, teaching has been a profession that is sometimes envied and sometimes criticized. From this point of view, this study aims to reveal teachers' views about the holidays they have. Maximum diversity sampling was used to review teachers' views and a total of 12 volunteer participants, four teachers from each school level (primary, secondary and high school), were interviewed. According to the findings, the meaning that teachers attributed to holiday was mostly described with the expressions of \"discharge\", \"clearing the mind\", \"making time for oneself and family\", \"getting out of routine\" and \"unplanned\". In general, it was understood that some teachers found the holiday periods ideal, while others found them inadequate. In addition, all of the teachers stated that they have a mentally and physically demanding job and emphasized that there should be plenty of holidays for this profession. However, they also stated that there is a dominant opinion in the society that teachers take many and long vacations and have free time. However, it was revealed that contrary to popular belief, they could not spend the holidays offered to them (especially summer vacation) efficiently.","PeriodicalId":471129,"journal":{"name":"Journal of advanced education studies","volume":"38 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136113969","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

ÇARPIK DAĞILIMLARDA FAKTÖR SAYISI BELİRLEME YÖNTEMLERİNİN PERFORMANSLARININ İNCELENMESİ 倾斜分布中因子数确定方法的性能

Journal of advanced education studies Pub Date : 2023-10-11 DOI: 10.48166/ejaes.1357828

Gül GÜLER, Abdullah Faruk KILIÇ

{"title":"ÇARPIK DAĞILIMLARDA FAKTÖR SAYISI BELİRLEME YÖNTEMLERİNİN PERFORMANSLARININ İNCELENMESİ","authors":"Gül GÜLER, Abdullah Faruk KILIÇ","doi":"10.48166/ejaes.1357828","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.48166/ejaes.1357828","url":null,"abstract":"This research aims to evaluate the performance of dimensionality determination methods under various simulation conditions. Therefore, dimensionality determination methods were compared, including optimal parallel analysis, MAP, HULL, EGA (TMFG) estimation, EGA (glasso) estimation, and comparison data forest method. The type of distribution, sample size, number of items per factor, number of categories, and measurement model were specified as simulation conditions in the study. For each condition, 100 replications were conducted. A fully crossed simulation design was employed in the study. The results of this study, which examined the performance of factor determination methods under skewed distributions, indicated that the HULL method had the highest average considering the average accuracy values of all conditions. Meanwhile, the HULL method had the lowest RB average. However, no method demonstrated adequate performance under all conditions. This study examined one-factor and two-factor structures with interfactor correlations of 0.00 and 0.30. Considering structures with more than two factors in education and psychology, future research could focus on working with data exhibiting skewed distributions involving more factors and items to compare the performance of methods.","PeriodicalId":471129,"journal":{"name":"Journal of advanced education studies","volume":"44 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136210999","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

THE EFFECT OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS WITH DIGITAL STORIES ON ACADEMIC SUCCESS AND MATHEMATICS ANXIETY 数字故事教学对数学学业成功和数学焦虑的影响

Journal of advanced education studies Pub Date : 2023-10-11 DOI: 10.48166/ejaes.1356417

Gülengül TOSUN, Ruhşen ALDEMİR ENGİN

{"title":"THE EFFECT OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS WITH DIGITAL STORIES ON ACADEMIC SUCCESS AND MATHEMATICS ANXIETY","authors":"Gülengül TOSUN, Ruhşen ALDEMİR ENGİN","doi":"10.48166/ejaes.1356417","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.48166/ejaes.1356417","url":null,"abstract":"Digital Storytelling, which is formed by adding technological elements to traditional storytelling, has been frequently used in education recently. This method, which is also used in mathematics education, contributes to students in both cognitive and affective dimensions. For this reason, the aim of this study is to examine the effects of digital storytelling supported education on the academic achievement of sixth grade students in Integers and Absolute Value and their mathematics anxiety levels. Pre-test post-test experimental design was used. The study group consists 20 middle school students. An achievement test prepared by the researchers was used to measure success, and a scale to determine the level of math anxiety was used to measure anxiety. The test and scale were applied twice, at the beginning and at the end of the process. In the process, teaching was carried out using digital stories prepared by the researchers. SPSS package program was used in the analysis of the data and the dependent sample t-test was used. At the end of the research, it was seen that digital story-supported education positively affected the academic success of the students, but did not affect the anxiety level.","PeriodicalId":471129,"journal":{"name":"Journal of advanced education studies","volume":"17 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136210367","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

EXAMINATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS' STUDIES ON MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM SOLVING IN NATIONAL THESIS CENTRE AND TR-DİZİN 国家论文中心和tr-dİzİn中学生数学解题能力的测试

Journal of advanced education studies Pub Date : 2023-10-11 DOI: 10.48166/ejaes.1356174

Şevket AYDIN

{"title":"EXAMINATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS' STUDIES ON MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM SOLVING IN NATIONAL THESIS CENTRE AND TR-DİZİN","authors":"Şevket AYDIN","doi":"10.48166/ejaes.1356174","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.48166/ejaes.1356174","url":null,"abstract":"The aim of this study is to make a descriptive content analysis of the articles related to mathematical problem solving from the theses in the National Thesis Centre and the journals of the faculties of education published in Tr-dizin and to determine the general trend. A total of 159 theses were included in the study. The studies were examined within the framework of the \"Study Review Form on Mathematical Problem Solving Published in National Thesis Centre and Tr-dizin\" prepared within the scope of the research. The related studies were analysed within the categories determined within the framework of sub-problems. Frequency and percentage distributions of the categories were calculated with the help of Excel programme and the data obtained were presented in detail with the help of tables. According to the results of the study, it was concluded that studies on mathematical problem solving were mostly conducted with 7th grade students, quantitative research methods were selected, quantitative analyses were performed and questionnaires and scales were preferred as data collection tools. It is thought that it will be useful in terms of seeing the strengths and deficiencies of the studies carried out in this field and it can be a guide for future studies in terms of seeing the trend of the studies from a holistic perspective.","PeriodicalId":471129,"journal":{"name":"Journal of advanced education studies","volume":"119 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136211145","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

BEING A DOCTORAL STUDENT IN MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION IN EDUCATION: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF DOCTORAL STUDENTS 教育测量与评价中的博士生身份:博士生视角下的现象学研究

Journal of advanced education studies Pub Date : 2023-10-10 DOI: 10.48166/ejaes.1357499

Seda DEMİR

{"title":"BEING A DOCTORAL STUDENT IN MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION IN EDUCATION: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF DOCTORAL STUDENTS","authors":"Seda DEMİR","doi":"10.48166/ejaes.1357499","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.48166/ejaes.1357499","url":null,"abstract":"The study aims to examine the views of doctorate students and graduate doctoral students who have received or are receiving doctoral education in the field of measurement and evaluation in education. Phenomenological design, one of the qualitative research methods, was used in the study. The participants of the study consisted of 24 participants who had completed their doctoral education in the field of Measurement and Evaluation in Education at three different state universities (n=11) or were continuing their doctoral education (n=13). The data were gathered during the fall semester of 2022-2023 academic year via a semi-structured interview form prepared by the researcher and consisting of five open-ended items. Content analysis was used for analysis of the data gathered. The results showed that students' views about the factors leading them to pursue an academic career were grouped under three themes as “having interest in the field”, “desire for academic achievement”, and “career goals.” Two themes, “guidance and mentorship” and “academic support” were identified for students' views on their learning relationships with their supervisors. It was seen that students' views about their academic experiences were grouped under three themes as “research activities”, “teaching experiences”, and “academic development.” In addition, students' views on the skills provided by their supervisors were grouped under the themes of “research skills”, “higher-order thinking skills”, and “pedagogical and teaching skills”. Lastly, three themes, “technical competencies”, “theoretical knowledge”, and “practical skills” were identified for the participants' views on the requirements they needed during their doctoral education.","PeriodicalId":471129,"journal":{"name":"Journal of advanced education studies","volume":"3 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136294986","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

A STUDY OF THE GERMAN SOCİAL STUDİES CURRİCULUM: THE CASE OF BADEN-WÜRTTEMBERG 德国socİal studİes currİculum研究:以baden-wÜrttemberg为例

Journal of advanced education studies Pub Date : 2023-10-07 DOI: 10.48166/ejaes.1354340

İlyas KARA, Özkan GİNESAR, Ahmet TOKMAK

{"title":"A STUDY OF THE GERMAN SOCİAL STUDİES CURRİCULUM: THE CASE OF BADEN-WÜRTTEMBERG","authors":"İlyas KARA, Özkan GİNESAR, Ahmet TOKMAK","doi":"10.48166/ejaes.1354340","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.48166/ejaes.1354340","url":null,"abstract":"In Turkey, the social studies course is designed to include learning objectives related to history, geography, civic education, and rules of social life. In the German state of Baden-Württemberg, on the other hand, the course is designed to include learning objectives for social life and civic education that are independent of the learning objectives for history and geography. Separate courses for history and geography are also planned. In this study, which aims to examine the social studies curriculum of the German state of Baden-Württemberg, the document analysis method was used, and the descriptive analysis method was used to analyze the data. In line with the findings obtained, it was found that skills training was intensively included in the curriculum. Results showed that the subjects and outcomes are compatible with each other and that they are mostly related to citizenship education. It is understood that the curriculum aims to raise European citizens with political awareness as well as good German citizens. The curriculum focuses mainly on topics such as social life, rights, responsibilities, media and its impact on society, participation, politics, peace, human rights, decision-making processes in Germany and the European Union, migration, and life in Europe. At the end of the study, suggestions were made to renew the program, which has not been updated since 2016, in the context of changing global conditions and views of citizenship, to formally include a measurement and evaluation section in the program, and to make the program more functional.","PeriodicalId":471129,"journal":{"name":"Journal of advanced education studies","volume":"63 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135252136","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0