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The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality最新文献

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Blame It on Sex 归咎于性
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality Pub Date : 2021-12-23 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0002
J. Wisman
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引用次数: 0
What Future for Inequality? 不平等的未来如何?
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality Pub Date : 2021-12-23 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0014
J. Wisman
{"title":"What Future for Inequality?","authors":"J. Wisman","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0014","url":null,"abstract":"Because the struggle over inequality is the principal defining issue of history, it will also be the defining issue of humanity’s future. This concluding chapter briefly surveys reasons for pessimism and optimism concerning future inequality. On the side of pessimism, since the rise of the state 5,500 years ago, elites have almost always taken all of producers’ surpluses, leaving them with bare subsistence. Only partial delegitimation of elites’ ideology during the Great Depression led to 40 years of political measures reducing inequality. The resurgence of laissez-faire ideology and inequality over the past 45 years does not inspire optimism. Yet enormous progress has been made over the course of human history, and especially in the past several centuries. This has been especially impressive in the development of science and human critical faculties which privilege rule by reason. This book goes to press amidst growing awareness of inequality’s unfairness and negative consequences.","PeriodicalId":408391,"journal":{"name":"The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality","volume":"13 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127541096","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
The Shift toward Secular Ideology 向世俗意识形态的转变
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality Pub Date : 2021-12-23 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0008
J. Wisman
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引用次数: 0
Simon Kuznets’s Happy Prognosis Crushed in an Ideological Coup 西蒙·库兹涅茨的幸福预测在一场意识形态政变中被粉碎
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality Pub Date : 2021-12-23 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0011
J. Wisman
{"title":"Simon Kuznets’s Happy Prognosis Crushed in an Ideological Coup","authors":"J. Wisman","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0011","url":null,"abstract":"In 1955, economist Simon Kuznets suggested that, while inequality increases during early economic development, in later stages it declines. However, this felicitous hypothesis has been contradicted by inequality’s explosion since the 1970s. This explosion was energized by President Ronald Reagan’s declaration in 1981 that “government is the problem.” Turning popular sentiment against government was an ideological coup, because only government policies can decrease inequality. Government was not reduced in size or in its intervention into the workings of the economy, but policies shifted radically in favor of the wealthy. Taxes were cut for the rich, the economy was significantly deregulated, and welfare measures were trimmed. This chapter unfolds the dynamics that enabled laissez-faire ideology to revive and become more entrenched than ever before. It clarifies how this ideology managed to survive the Great Recession following the financial crisis of 2008, during and after which inequality has continued to explode.","PeriodicalId":408391,"journal":{"name":"The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121218354","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
The Problem Is Inequality, Not Private Property and Markets 问题在于不平等，而不是私有财产和市场
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality Pub Date : 2021-12-23 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0013
J. Wisman
{"title":"The Problem Is Inequality, Not Private Property and Markets","authors":"J. Wisman","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0013","url":null,"abstract":"Capitalism has always had vociferous critics, none of whom was more insightful than Marx. He recognized that although capitalism produced unprecedented wealth, behind its ideological patina of freedom, it was an exploitative social system wherein capitalists extracted workers’ surplus. Marx and other critics also held capitalism’s institutions of private property and markets to be corrupting. This has been a mistake. The problem is not these institutions but the inequality that co-evolved with them, providing elites with the political power to structure private property and markets to exploit producers. Marx believed that capitalism’s evolution would eventually empower producers to take political power, and that they would abandon these institutions. But these institutions are essential for economic dynamism and freedom. Blaming capitalism’s institutions of private property and markets for the injustices and social irrationality that accompanied them is a mistake that hinders evolution of a non-exploitative future that makes use of them.","PeriodicalId":408391,"journal":{"name":"The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality","volume":"177 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114159217","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Inequality, Conspicuous Consumption, and the Growth Trap 不平等、炫耀性消费和增长陷阱
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality Pub Date : 2021-12-23 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0012
J. Wisman
{"title":"Inequality, Conspicuous Consumption, and the Growth Trap","authors":"J. Wisman","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0012","url":null,"abstract":"Avoiding devastation of the human habitat is arguably the greatest challenge humanity has ever faced, and high inequality greatly impairs successfully addressing this threat. In societies in which fluid social mobility is believed possible, inequality encourages households to seek social certification and status through consumption. Rising inequality strengthens this dynamic. The institutions and behavior generated by the belief that ever-greater consumption brings ever-greater well-being reduce the potential for people to achieve social status and self-respect through more environmentally friendly domains such as democratized work and community. Inequality impedes responses aimed at reducing environmental damage by augmenting the political power of the wealthy, whose interests would be most harmed by measures to protect the environment. The wealthy benefit from pollution because their far greater consumption is made less expensive and their assets yield higher profits. They are also better able to shield themselves from the negative consequences of environmental degradation.","PeriodicalId":408391,"journal":{"name":"The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality","volume":"28 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125950587","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Theological Revolution and the Idea of Equality 神学革命与平等观念
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality Pub Date : 2021-12-23 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0007
J. Wisman
{"title":"Theological Revolution and the Idea of Equality","authors":"J. Wisman","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"The transition in Europe from a predominantly agricultural society dominated by a landed aristocracy to an emerging commercial one with an expanding bourgeoisie gave birth to a reformulated expression of Christianity whose doctrines could better legitimate the new institutions and practices of commercial society. Whereas Catholicism provided an ideology that justified the landlords’ capture of economic surplus, Protestantism legitimated the emerging bourgeoisie’s ability to do the same. Protestantism’s privileging of work and asceticism afforded social respectability to the bourgeoisie and ideological support for its capturing a share of society’s surplus. It gave legitimacy to the harsh social treatment of a rising class of wage workers who had been separated from any ownership, control, or ready access to the means of production. Protestantism served as a transitional religion between a traditional agricultural world dominated by Catholic doctrine and a more modern commercial one dominated by secular thought.","PeriodicalId":408391,"journal":{"name":"The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality","volume":"13 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129577971","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
The Dynamics of Religious Legitimation 宗教合法化的动态
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality Pub Date : 2021-12-23 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0004
J. Wisman
{"title":"The Dynamics of Religious Legitimation","authors":"J. Wisman","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter examines legitimation theory and the ways in which religion has justified inequality throughout most of history. The rise of economic and political inequality generated social attitudes and beliefs that justified it, making it seem proper, natural, and consonant with the mandates of celestial powers. Elites’ ideology presented this inequality as necessary and fair. Because religion also meets psychological and social needs, until modern times, religion played the major ideological role in legitimating inequality, social institutions, and behavior. Inequality and class or other group-based hierarchy can be maintained by either physical force or ideological persuasion. Physical force can be expressed as threat of imprisonment, torture, or death. But physical force generates resentment and expensive policing. Less costly, ideological control is generally expressed through the manipulation of social discourse. Thus, it is most effective for elites to embrace self-serving ideological systems that are convincing to themselves and to those below them.","PeriodicalId":408391,"journal":{"name":"The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality","volume":"418 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132636178","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Workers Gain Formal Political Power 工人获得正式的政治权力
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality Pub Date : 2021-12-23 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0009
J. Wisman
{"title":"Workers Gain Formal Political Power","authors":"J. Wisman","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0009","url":null,"abstract":"Industrialization and urbanization during the nineteenth century brought workers physically together, where they could organize and petition through strikes and revolts for better wages, shorter working hours, limits to child labor, safer working conditions, education for their children, and most importantly, the franchise. Although inequality continued to increase, conditions for workers and their families began improving. Workers gained formal political power within government. Yet although workers acquired the vote and with it the potential for dramatically rewriting the rules of the game (because they held the overwhelming majority of votes), elites’ ideology was effective in convincing them to restrain their political muscle. Nevertheless, elites’ monopoly control over the political sphere had been broken. As a result, they could no longer as readily use violence to put down worker demands. Their retention of disproportionate shares of income, wealth, and privilege would depend more fully upon the persuasiveness of their ideology.","PeriodicalId":408391,"journal":{"name":"The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality","volume":"105 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"117350447","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
From Aboriginal Equality to Limited and Unstable Inequality 从原住民平等到有限不稳定的不平等
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality Pub Date : 2021-12-23 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0003
J. Wisman
{"title":"From Aboriginal Equality to Limited and Unstable Inequality","authors":"J. Wisman","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197575949.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"During the first 97 percent of the approximately 200,000-year history of Homo sapiens, when humans existed as hunter-gatherers and early agriculturalists, they lived with little political and economic inequality, due to the ready availability of stone weapons and ability of the weaker ones to form defensive coalitions blocking bullies’ attempts to amass political power. Their egalitarian incentive structure rewarded them for sharing food, child care, and practically everything else. The slow adoption of agriculture beginning about 10,000 years ago created the material condition on which a limited degree of social hierarchy could develop. About 9,000 years ago, chiefs arose by ideologically claiming special access to celestial powers to better assure the welfare of the community. They thereby gained greater access to material goods and mates. However, their legitimacy was fragile, readily upset by poor harvests or other catastrophes that delegitimated their ideology and returned their societies to economic and political equality.","PeriodicalId":408391,"journal":{"name":"The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128716651","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
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