Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0008
S. Finger
{"title":"Skull and Cast “Libraries”","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0008","url":null,"abstract":"Gall’s skull and cast collections served as his research “library.” He had a large one in Vienna, and he built a second one starting with some of his prized earlier pieces after settling in Paris in 1807, though he left a great number of pieces behind. Since the Renaissance, people had been collecting specimens from the natural world, amassing them in “cabinets of wonder” and even publishing catalogues of their pieces. In the Netherlands, Frederik Ruysch had not only collected a large number of fetuses and human body parts by the 1690s, but had incorporated some of them into artistic panoramas that even the laity craved to see. Gall fit into this collecting tradition with the skulls and casts he obtained from hospitals, asylums, and places of execution, and with those purchased, traded for, or gifted to him by friends and admirers. Nonetheless, there was also considerable grave robbing (resurrectionism) by overly zealous phrenologists in this era, worrying people and casting a dark shadow over his collecting endeavors. Parts of Gall’s Vienna collection can be seen in the Rollett Museum near Vienna, whereas his second collection and own skull are now in the Musée de l’Homme (Paris).","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"5 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116855262","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0016
S. Finger
{"title":"New Perspectives on Insanity and Criminality","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0016","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0016","url":null,"abstract":"Gall was interested in seeing his new science applied to major problems facing society. Two such problems were how to deal with the insane and criminals, both of which already interested him when he began to formulate his doctrine in Vienna. He did not write separate treatises on these subjects, but he did write extensively about them, providing considerable history in the two sets of volumes presenting his doctrine. Following Pinel and others, he argued that the insane should be treated more humanely and that they should be classified as being curable or unresponsive to treatments. His approach, however, was more brain oriented. He was especially interested in the “monomanias” (partial manias), since these disorders could be associated with specific faculties of the mind, though he also wrote about the causes of melancholia and suicide. Among criminals, he again distinguished those likely to benefit from remediation or incarceration from those with cerebral organizations too wanting to be overcome, while also explaining types of crimes with brain physiology. For Gall, the crime itself was one part of the story, but another, too frequently overlooked in the courts, was the criminal’s brain.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"13 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124222169","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0015
S. Finger
{"title":"The Arts, and Faculties in Concert","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0015","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0015","url":null,"abstract":"Gall was more interested in nature than the arts, but how he approached the various arts shows how he organized his thoughts and that he was also pondering how his faculties must work in harmony. He had a special faculty for tune or music in his system and made it very clear that this faculty is involved with tonal relationships, not simpler functions, and must be a brain function. He also presented what led him to this faculty; showed why he considered music an innate talent; described how his studies of musical geniuses and birds led him to the cranial bump above the eye; and explained different kinds of music as reflecting the tune faculty working with others. In contrast to music, Gall listed a number of faculties that can figure into the fine arts: distinguishing the relation of colors, constructiveness, locality, distinguishing persons, and imitation. Here, too, he emphasized how faculties must work together and how other faculties figure into the choice of subject matter (e.g., flowers, battle scenes). He also had a faculty for poetry, which he defined broadly. He mentioned that great poets are born, not made; described its bump in the “superior part of the head”; and again alluded to how other faculties working with it would help determine what a poet would write about.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"140 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128457834","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0020
S. Finger
{"title":"A Rightful Place in History","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0020","url":null,"abstract":"Gall’s craniology would not withstand the test of time, and how he accepted confirmatory cases and dismissed contradictory evidence would increasingly be regarded as poor science. As a consequence, his cranium-based doctrine began to be branded as a “pseudoscience” in 1834 by physiologist Pierre Magendie, with others following suit. Nonetheless, many of Gall’s ideas have endured, even though he is rarely remembered today for many changes he elicited or helped to elicit. His concepts of numerous independent organs of mind, different kinds of memories, and cortical localization of function are now widely accepted in the neurosciences. He was also extremely influential in drawing attention to individual differences, and he played a major role in making psychiatry a brain-based science and introducing brain pathology into the courtroom. He also deserves to be remembered for purging the soul from the life sciences and positioning us with other animals. And he made significant discoveries in neuroanatomy. In retrospect, Gall was neither a charlatan nor a fraud, though he had too much faith in cranioscopy. His ideas merit a fresh look and, without question, he deserves more credit than he has been given for his insights and how they have changed many fields.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"9 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121157935","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0001
S. Finger
{"title":"Formative Years and Childhood Memories","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0001","url":null,"abstract":"Franz Joseph Gall, who was born into a large family in the small German town of Tiefenbronn in 1758. Often called Joseph (not Franz) during his formative years, he enjoyed nature, especially watching and catching birds and wild animals, and also collecting specimens. He began his studies in the house of the brother of an uncle, a priest in the nearby town of Weil der Stadt, before moving on to a lyceum in Baden and then on to Bruchsal. Wanting a secular career, he enrolled in the University of Strasbourg in 1777, where he studied anatomy and medicine. He would later reflect that the good memorizers at Strasbourg and of his earlier years had a correlative physical feature: large, bulging eyes. But at the time, he seemed committed to time-honored theories of mind and brain. Completing his medical education in Vienna in 1785, he aspired to become a physician to the wealthy in the city.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131433045","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0019
S. Finger
{"title":"Controversial Final Years","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0019","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0019","url":null,"abstract":"Gall remained a controversial figure throughout his life, which ended in Paris in 1828. In his later years, he continued to fight with Georges Cuvier, who had overseen the rejection of his and Spurzheim’s Mémoire to the Institut National in 1808, and with Cuvier’s protégé, physiologist Pierre Flourens. Flourens initially looked favorably on Gall’s doctrine, but during the 1820s his brain lesion experiments on birds and other animals were heralded by the French élite as strong evidence against cortical localization of function. Despite this formidable opposition, Gall did find a supporter of localization of function in physician Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud, who started reporting in 1825 that lesions of the anterior part of the brain are more likely to affect speech than posterior brain damage. Gall’s health began to fail a year later, when he was 68 and began to have strokes. After he succumbed to a cerebral hemorrhage in 1828, his body was buried in Paris’ Cimetiére du Pére-Lachaise, but not his skull, which was examined by his followers and added to his collection. Gall’s organologie, now regarded as phrénologie, now began an even steeper decline in France and throughout the Continent, although “popular phrenology,” with less emphasis on the underlying science, continued to be influential on British and American landscapes.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"21 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133021906","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0007
S. Finger
{"title":"Of Animal Heads and Animal Tales","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"Animals played significant roles in Gall’s research program, in which he viewed humans as merely having more complex and better developed brains. Studying lowly animals, barnyard animals, wild animals, and pets helped reveal what makes us human, both behaviorally and with regard to brain development, while providing a natural backdrop on which life can be viewed on a continuum (i.e., a Great Chain of Being, albeit one devoid of supernatural entities). Gall even compared animals to humans with brain injuries and diseases. Further, he was an animal lover who always had pets around him, and he did not hesitate to mention how observing animals, including his pet dogs, birds, and monkeys, helped him discover particular faculties and their locations. He also did everything he could to encourage people to send him stories of exceptional animals and, ideally, their heads or skulls when they died. He did not, however, look favorably on brain lesion experiments with animals, railing against such mutilations as having so many problems that they could not convey clear and reliable information. Nonetheless, he did conduct a few experiments of his own to see if the findings of others, including Pierre Flourens, could be verified.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122111117","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0004
S. Finger
{"title":"The Brain and Its Functions Prior to Gall","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"Very little was known about the brain, its structural organization, and its functions when Gall began his dissections of animals, autopsies on people, and studies of individuals with congenital or acquired brain damage. In particular, the cerebral cortex had been either ignored or looked upon as a unified organ with a single function, such as memory. Emanuel Swedenborg was the only person prior to Gall to conclude with supportive evidence that it must be comprised of a number of distinct functional areas. Swedenborg’s insights from the mid-1700s were based on cases of brain damage, anatomy, and logic, but remained unknown to scientists and physicians when Gall began formulating his own ideas in the rapidly changing Zeitgeist at the end of the century.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114492693","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0002
S. Finger
{"title":"An Emerging Theory","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"Gall built a successful practice after obtaining his medical degree in 1785. He lived in a fashionable part of Vienna and in 1790 married Katharina Leisler, who he knew from Strasbourg. He published his first book in 1791, a philosophical work on the mind and the art of healing, in which he dispensed with metaphysics and loosely presented some ideas (e.g., innate faculties, individual differences) but not others (e.g., localizing faculties) that he would develop in his later “organology.” Shortly after, he met a young musical prodigy named Bianchi, who was ordinary in other ways. Although this convinced him that music had to be an innate faculty of mind, he did not correlate this trait with a distinctive cranial bump at this time. Nonetheless, her case seemed to have reminded him of the good memorizers of his youth, who had bulging eyes, also leading him to his new theory of mind. By 1796, he was lecturing from his home about many independent faculties of mind, the parts of the brain associated with them, and skull markers as a means to correlate behavioral functions with underlying brain structures. Two years later, he published a letter to Joseph Friedrich Freiherr Retzer, the Viennese censor, laying out his doctrine and methods with humans and animals. In it, he presented himself as a physiognomist.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127904232","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0005
S. Finger
{"title":"The Nature of Soul, or Is It Just Nature?","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"Gall wanted to develop a science based on what could be observed and felt—one devoid of metaphysics. Unlike Descartes, whose separation of the soul and the physical body was still very influential, especially among the faithful, he felt speculating about the soul was superfluous for understanding the mind and brain. He was a firm believer in the Great Chain of Being, and viewed humans not as having an “immaterial principle,” but instead as having a more highly developed brain than other animals. And rather than debating the unity of the soul or whether it is immortal, he chose to emphasize how specific behaviors could be affected by brain damage, maturation, cerebral atrophy, and the like. Gall’s faculties of mind helped humans and other animals survive and cope with everyday life, and he saw them as far more dependent on nature than on nurture. With this mindset, he felt able to account for both species differences and individual strengths and weaknesses. More than to anyone else, Gall was indebted to Prussian philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder for providing him with this philosophical orientation.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131355046","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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