Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0010
S. Finger
{"title":"Scientific Journey through Germany and Denmark","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"Berlin was the first stop on Gall’s scientific journey, which began in March 1805, during the Napoleonic Wars that led to the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire. He arrived there with Spurzheim, a wax modeler, and at last one servant, and gave a series of lectures and anatomical demonstrations, while also examining prisoners and psychiatric patients in local institutions. His lectures attracted large audiences that were mostly positive toward him, though he did battle with Professor of Anatomy Johann Gottlieb Walter, whose turf he invaded. After Berlin he headed to nearby Potsdam, where he had been invited to lecture by royalty. Leipzig, Dresden, and Halle followed, and then Weimar and Jena, again with considerable support but also some critics. Next was Göttingen, where he spent time with fellow skull collector and anthropologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, who was less than impressed. He continued on to Hamburg and Kiel, and into Denmark, where he lectured to a mixed audience of 200 men and women. Returning to the German states, he met with an appreciative King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden, who, like many others, rewarded him for his stop. Bremen and Münster were next on his agenda, ending this largely successful part of his scientific journey and positioning him to cross over to the Netherlands.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"68 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116344693","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0009
S. Finger
{"title":"Hostility in Vienna","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0009","url":null,"abstract":"Gall remained in Vienna until 1805. He would have liked to continue working there but was prohibited from giving lectures (even in his home) by Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, who was guided by court physician Andreas Joseph von Stifft. The charges levied against Gall in 1801 were that he did not have a proper license to lecture, which was absurd, and that he was preaching unacceptable materialism. Gall’s listeners made notes of his lectures, and some were published. As for the charges, there are records showing how he responded to them in thoughtful detail, and that he also had some supporters. But things did not go his way and after a while he felt it best to leave Vienna voluntarily, at least for a while, given the power plays, conservative politics, and the ban now limiting his activities. He had several research assistants during his time in Vienna, the most important being Johann Spurzheim, who was a skilled dissector and strong in theology and philosophy. Gall met him in 1800 and hired him in 1804, after the emperor’s decrees restricted his lecturing to the Viennese.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"93 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131697217","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0017
S. Finger
{"title":"“Cranioscopy” in the British Press","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0017","url":null,"abstract":"What Gall proposed in Vienna, while traveling through various German cities, and after he arrived in France in 1807 was transmitted by word of mouth and by the press to other countries. In particular, his travels and doctrine were covered in British periodicals and books even before Spurzheim went to Britain in 1814. Some of these publications were translations from German and French articles, while others came directly from foreign correspondents. Further, some included commentary, whereas others did not. Those with opinions varied, with some authors coming out for or against the doctrine, while cooler heads called for more evidence and verification before it could be judged. The British press dutifully covered Gall and Spurzheim’s 1808 Mémoire to the Institut de France, and readers across the British Isles were treated to reviews of the first few volumes of their Anatomie et Physiologie du Système Nerveux, which first began to appear in 1810. Although Thomas Brown published a strongly worded attack against Gall, the British seemed to take what they read in stride. No societies were formed, no journals launched, and no leader rose up to champion the new science prior to Spurzheim’s visits.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"15 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116855817","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0012
S. Finger
{"title":"Settling in Paris","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0012","url":null,"abstract":"Gall and Spurzheim arrived in Paris during October 1807, while the Napoleonic Wars were still raging and where Napoleon Bonaparte was reshaping every aspect of society. Napoleon despised foreigners and considered Gall’s doctrine absurd. He urged Georges Cuvier, one of his appointed guardians of French science, to reject it. Nonetheless, Gall made inroads, giving public lectures and demonstrations on his organologie that were well received, while seeing patients to support himself. Encouraged by these ventures, he and Spurzheim wrote a Mémoire and submitted it to the Institut National in 1808. Cuvier, who headed the evaluating committee and was being guided by Napoleon, rejected it as unoriginal and unsuitable for the division for Sciences Mathématiques et Physiques, even though the subject matter was basic anatomy and not more controversial organologie. Gall was furious and sent letters expressing his disappointment to Cuvier, but to no avail. Consequently, he published a book covering the submission, the rejection, and his retorts. And rather than leaving France, he opted to continue his lecturing and medical practice in the city with many amenities, and he continued to work on a series of volumes he was already calling his “great work.”","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129388637","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0013
S. Finger
{"title":"The Long-Awaited Volumes","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0013","url":null,"abstract":"Gall was already starting to write a book about organology while in Vienna. It had been approved by the censor and he had a subscription to back it. But he did not complete it there or during his lecture-demonstration tour prior to entering France. He did, however, continue to collect more case studies and feedback along the way and in Paris, where he was helped with his French. Gall knew this book was important for his legitimacy as a serious scientist and for his legacy, and he spent a small fortune on the four volumes and magnificent accompanying atlas. Titled Anatomie et Physiologie du Système Nerveux en Général, et du Cerveau en Particulier, it came out between 1810 and 1819, with Spurzheim (who left him in the interim) as his co-author on the first two volumes and the atlas. To his dismay, Gall discovered that the set was too expensive for most of his readers to afford. This revelation led him to publish a less expensive “small edition” without the detailed neuroanatomy and the costly atlas, his Sur les Fonctions du Cerveau et sur Celles de Chacune de ses Parties, which left his organologie virtually unchanged and was completed in 1825. The latter was translated into English a decade later, seven years after his death, and it allowed a broader audience to follow his logic and see his evidence for multiple, independent organs of mind associated with discrete cortical territories.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126171332","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0018
S. Finger
{"title":"Spurzheim’s “Phrenology” and Gall in Britain","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0018","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0018","url":null,"abstract":"Although the British were kept aware of Gall’s doctrine from 1800 on, their reactions to it were muted until Spurzheim left him, made his way to London in 1814, and immediately began to promote what would soon become known as “phrenology” (a term he did not coin but began to use in 1818) in books and lecture-demonstrations throughout the British Isles. Anxious to stand out on his own after first associating himself with his more famous mentor, Spurzheim took it upon himself to modify Gall’s system, renaming some of the 27 faculties, adding a few new ones, and reclassifying them in what he considered a superior way. His first books appeared in English in 1815, and he was prolific. Gall was so bothered by the inroads Spurzheim was making that he visited London in 1823 to set the record straight. To his dismay, his lectures were not well attended and he cut his tour short. Spurzheim engaged in some well-covered debates with John Gordon, who considered the doctrine “a collection of mere absurdities,” and later with William Hamilton in Edinburgh. He also found a disciple in Edinburgh, George Combe, whose efforts would lead to the first phrenological society and journal, and in 1828 (the year of Gall’s death) a best-selling book, his Constitution of Man.\u0000","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"10 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"117268800","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0006
S. Finger
{"title":"A Man of Skulls, and More","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0006","url":null,"abstract":"Gall used various methods when studying people and animals, including dissecting brains, studying individuals with brain damage and diseases, and correlating brain development with the advent of specific behaviors. His primary method, however, was examining the heads and skulls of groups of people either very strong or unusually weak in a behavioral trait, or interviewing people with unusual cranial features, and correlating his craniological observations (e.g., bumps, depressions) with specific mental functions. As shown in this chapter, he had to rely heavily on skulls because he did not have access to adequate numbers of brains of exceptional people, other than lunatics and criminals, and because he did not have good ways of preserving the brains he could get. He also collected skulls showing age-related changes, and amassed a large number of head casts of living or deceased exceptional men, women, and children.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"2 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134107700","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-06-03DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0011
S. Finger
{"title":"A Detour to Holland, Switzerland, and Back to Germany","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190464622.003.0011","url":null,"abstract":"Gall’s scientific travels took him from the German states to the Netherlands in 1806, where his ideas were already known to many people, having been covered in periodicals and books, as well as through word of mouth. But although the Dutch had been intrigued by physiognomy, they were less than enthusiastic about Gall, who did not help his cause by how he reacted to small audiences and some fellow scientists. This part of his journey included stops in Utrecht, Amsterdam, the Hague, and Leiden. Tepid receptions made him anxious to return to the German states, starting with Cologne, where he also experienced a lack of interest. Things improved when he made his way to Frankfurt and then to some smaller German cities, and he was able to see his parents in Tiefenbronn. Gall had previously made a short stop in Heidelberg, returning there early in 1807 and entering into a vitriolic debate with Jakob Fidelis Ackermann, who criticized virtually everything Gall did in a book. He then went to Munich, where he met with anatomist Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, who was polite but felt Gall was a poor listener and not always right. Zurich, Bern, and some other Swiss cities followed, and once again Weimar. By the fall of 1807, he dropped his plans to go to Russia and instead turned to Paris, not expecting to spend the rest of his life there.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"77 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131969330","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Franz Joseph GallPub Date : 2019-05-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190464622.003.0014
S. Finger
{"title":"Presenting Organologie","authors":"S. Finger","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190464622.003.0014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190464622.003.0014","url":null,"abstract":"In his Sur les Fonctions du Cerveau, Gall dispensed with his extensive neuroanatomy and focused exclusively on his organologie. He began with a discussion about the brain becoming more complex as one ascended the ladder to humans, showing where we fit into the animal kingdom. He then turned to the faculties being innate, while recognizing that learning might teach us how to control some inborn propensities. He also explained why he dismissed metaphysics from his formulation, yet why his doctrine should not be regarded as materialist, fatalistic, or destructive of free will. In his second volume, he made the case for multiple organs of mind and dispensed with earlier notions. His next volume presented his various methods, showed his awareness of the power of converging operations, and laid out his reasons for making cranioscopy his primary method for determining the faculties of mind and the parts of the brain associated with them. The importance of dealing with exceptional people and animals is also made clear here. At the end of his third volume, he presented his evidence for the most primitive of his 27 faculties, continuing on to his eight distinctly human faculties in his fifth volume. New works on the brain by other authors are covered in his sixth volume, with commentary about each.","PeriodicalId":361006,"journal":{"name":"Franz Joseph Gall","volume":"34 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132196489","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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