Particle DetectorsPub Date : 2020-06-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0013
H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes
{"title":"Scintillation detectors","authors":"H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0013","url":null,"abstract":"The detection of scintillation light, which is generated when an ionising particle passes certain media or when radiation is absorbed, belongs to the oldest detection techniques. Scintillation detectors are read out electronically by employing the photon detectors described in a previous chapter. Scintillators are either made of organic or of inorganic materials (crystals) with essential differences of their properties and application field. For both scintillation mechanisms, the light yield and the time dependence of the signals are explained and the specific application areas pointed out. Typical assemblies of scintillation detectors are presented which include organic scintillators as trigger and timing counters, scintillating fibres for tracking and calorimetry and inorganic crystal arrangements for calorimetry.","PeriodicalId":321351,"journal":{"name":"Particle Detectors","volume":"15 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115233429","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Particle DetectorsPub Date : 2020-06-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0015
H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes
{"title":"Calorimeters","authors":"H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0015","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0015","url":null,"abstract":"The determination of the energy of particles is called ‘calorimetry’ and the corresponding detectors are called calorimeters. The particle energy is deposited in a calorimeter through inelastic reactions leading to the formation of particle showers. The deposited energy is measured either through the charge generated by ionisation or through scintillation or Cherenkov light. Depending on the particle type initiating a shower one distinguishes electromagnetic calorimeters from hadronic calorimeters. In this chapter the formation of showers for both cases is explained and the corresponding construction principles are discussed. For hadron calorimeters special attention is given to the different response to electromagnetically and hadronically deposited energy and the possible compensation of invisible energy. This is followed by a description of typical implementations of electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters as well as of systems combining both types. Special emphasis is given to the discussion of the energy resolution of the different detectors and detector systems.","PeriodicalId":321351,"journal":{"name":"Particle Detectors","volume":"286 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115433657","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Particle DetectorsPub Date : 2020-06-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0003
H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes
{"title":"Interactions of particles with matter","authors":"H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"Particles are sensed through their interactions with matter. To begin with, the chapter introduces the terms cross section and absorption. Then successively the most important interactions that are employed for the detection of the various particle types are discussed: energy loss of charged particles by ionisation and bremsstrahlung, multiple Coulomb scattering of charged particles, interactions of photons and hadrons with matter. The interactions leading to the development of electromagnetic and hadronic showers are treated in more detail in chapter 15 (Calorimeters), while energy loss by Cherenkov and transition radiation are discussed in chapters 11 and 12, respectively. When describing the interaction processes an attempt is made to address the theoretical background in a way that the derivations ought to be comprehensible.","PeriodicalId":321351,"journal":{"name":"Particle Detectors","volume":"4 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114247221","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Particle DetectorsPub Date : 2020-06-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0010
H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes
{"title":"Photodetectors","authors":"H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"The chapter covers photodetectors for photons in the optical and near UV range (about 200 nm to 700 nm). Important for particle and astroparticle experiments are photodetectors which detect light generated in scintillation or Cherenkov detectors, for example. The detection of photons always starts with the generation of an electron by photoeffect at a photocathode. The photoelectron can then be either multiplied in a photomultiplier tube by secondary electron emission or the cathode could be the surface of a semiconductor detector; both techniques can also be combined in hybrid photodetectors. A relatively new semiconductor detector is the silicon photomultiplier using an avalanche operation mode to obtain sufficiently large signals. In the last section the different photodetectors are compared and are assigned to typical applications according to their properties.","PeriodicalId":321351,"journal":{"name":"Particle Detectors","volume":"15 Suppl 1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121733949","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Particle DetectorsPub Date : 2020-06-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0017
H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes
{"title":"Signal processing, readout and noise","authors":"H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0017","url":null,"abstract":"The electronic readout and processing of detector signals, generated by radiation in detectors, is today by far the most common form of signal acquisition in particle physics. In this chapter typical procedures for electronic readout of detectors are discussed with special attention to small, noise-prone signals. An overview is given of standard techniques for signal processing, like amplification, pulse shaping, discrimination and digitization where also the new developments in microelectronics are discussed. In applications with high data rates, as at modern accelerator experiments or also in (X-ray) image processing, deadtimes can occur which are discussed in a dedicated section. Similarly, there is a section on wave guide properties of signal cable. Often the signals are so small, in particular those of semiconductor detectors, that electronic noise and its suppression play an important role.","PeriodicalId":321351,"journal":{"name":"Particle Detectors","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116439108","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Particle DetectorsPub Date : 2020-06-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0004
H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes
{"title":"Movement of charge carriers in electric and magnetic fields","authors":"H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"For the detection of charged particles many detector principles exploit the ionisation in sensing layers and the collection of the generated charges by electrical fields on electrodes, from where the signals can be deduced. In gases and liquids the charge carriers are electrons and ions, in semiconductors they are electrons and holes. To describe the ordered and unordered movement of the charge carriers in electric and magnetic fields the Boltzmann transport equation is introduced and approximate solutions are derived. On the basis of the transport equation drift and diffusion are discussed, first in general and then for applications to gases and semiconductors. It turns out that, at least for the simple approximations, the treatment for both media is very similar, for example also for the description of the movement in magnetic fields (Lorentz angle and Hall effect) or of the critical energy (Nernst-Townsend-Einstein relation).","PeriodicalId":321351,"journal":{"name":"Particle Detectors","volume":"58 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124509272","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Particle DetectorsPub Date : 2020-06-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0008
H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes
{"title":"Semiconductor detectors","authors":"H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0008","url":null,"abstract":"Already since the early 1960s semiconductor detectors have been employed in nuclear physics, in particular for gamma ray energy measurement. This chapter concentrates on position sensitive semiconductor detectors which have been developed in particle physics since the 1980s and which feature position resolutions in the range of 50–100 μm by structuring the electrodes, thus reaching the best position resolutions of electronic detectors. For the first time this made the electronic measurement of secondary vertices and therewith the lifetime of heavy fermions possible. The chapter first conveys the basics of semiconductor physics, of semiconductor and metal-semiconductor junctions used in electronics and detector applications as well as particle detection with semiconductor detectors. It follows the description of different detector types, like strip and pixel detectors, silicon drift chambers and charged-coupled devices. New developments are addressed in the sections on ‘Monolithic pixel detectors’ and on ‘Precision timing with silicon detectors’. In the last sections detector deterioration by radiation damage is described and an overview of other semiconductor detector materials but silicon is given.","PeriodicalId":321351,"journal":{"name":"Particle Detectors","volume":"61 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131042477","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Particle DetectorsPub Date : 2020-06-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0011
H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes
{"title":"Cherenkov detectors","authors":"H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0011","url":null,"abstract":"Particles passing through a medium with a velocity larger than that of light in that medium emit electromagnetic radiation, called Cherenkov radiation. In this chapter the physical phenomenon and characteristic parameters of Cherenkov radiation, such as Cherenkov angle, spectrum and emission intensity, are introduced and the applications for particle detection and identification are discussed. It follows a presentation of the relevant detector types, such as threshold and differential Cherenkov detectors, ring imaging detectors (RICH and DIRC) as well as Cherenkov detectors in astroparticle experiments. The obtainable resolutions for particle identification via Cherenkov ring imaging and their limitations are discussed as well.","PeriodicalId":321351,"journal":{"name":"Particle Detectors","volume":"29 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116455981","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Particle DetectorsPub Date : 2020-06-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0002
H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes
{"title":"Overview, history and concepts","authors":"H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"The progress in nuclear and particle physics is based on the development of detectors that allow us to observe particles and radiation. This chapter gives an historic overview of the development and the employment of detectors. It is pointed out how this led to scientific discoveries and how, on the other hand, the developments in other fields, in particular in electronics, widened the potential of today’s detectors. Examples of typical detector concepts for experiments in particle and astroparticle physics are given and applications in other areas are pointed out. In a short section the ‘natural units’ (ℏ = c = 1), often used in particle physics, are defined and relativistic particle kinematics is introduced. The chapter finishes with an overview of the content of the book.","PeriodicalId":321351,"journal":{"name":"Particle Detectors","volume":"18 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114252362","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Particle DetectorsPub Date : 2020-06-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0018
H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes
{"title":"Trigger and data acquisition systems","authors":"H. Kolanoski, N. Wermes","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0018","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198858362.003.0018","url":null,"abstract":"The quantities measured by detectors are generally analogue signals or rates which are, with few exemptions, available in electronic form and which one usually wants to further process with computers. This chapter describes the interfaces between the detector-near electronics (see chapter 17) and a computer or a computer system. In order to limit the transfer rates of the interfaces and the capacities of storage media to the necessary, the interesting events are usually selected by triggers. Data acquisition and triggering are therefore closely connected and have to be coordinated. The capabilities of data acquisition and processing have grown with high speed and will presumably further grow following the developments in computers, networks and consumer electronics. In the framework of this book only a limited inside into these developments can be given.","PeriodicalId":321351,"journal":{"name":"Particle Detectors","volume":"55 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116846471","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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