Psychological review最新文献_第10页

Levels of analysis and explanatory progress in psychology: Integrating frameworks from biology and cognitive science for a more comprehensive science of the mind. 心理学的分析层次和解释进展：整合生物学和认知科学的框架，建立更全面的心理科学。

IF 5.4 1区心理学

Psychological review Pub Date : 2024-01-22 DOI: 10.1037/rev0000459

Laith Al-Shawaf

{"title":"Levels of analysis and explanatory progress in psychology: Integrating frameworks from biology and cognitive science for a more comprehensive science of the mind.","authors":"Laith Al-Shawaf","doi":"10.1037/rev0000459","DOIUrl":"10.1037/rev0000459","url":null,"abstract":"[Correction Notice: An Erratum for this article was reported online in Psychological Review on Mar 14 2024 (see record 2024-63968-001). Incorrect italic formatting was removed throughout the article, and an unnecessary paragraph of text was removed from the \"Levels of Analysis and the Branches of Psychology: What Is Needed for a Complete Explanation of a Behavior or Cognitive System?\" section. These were editorial production errors. All versions of this article have been corrected.] Levels of analysis are crucial to the progress of science. They frame the epistemological boundaries of a discipline, chart its explanatory goals, help scientists to avoid needless conflict, and highlight knowledge gaps. Two frameworks in particular, Tinbergen's four questions from biology and Marr's three levels from cognitive science, hold immense potential for psychology. This article proposes ways to integrate the two frameworks and suggests that doing so helps resolve key confusions and unnecessary conflicts in psychology. Integrating these two frameworks clarifies what \"mechanism\" really means, sheds light on how to test evolutionary hypotheses in psychology, and specifies what is required for a comprehensive explanation of a behavior or cognitive system. Adopting and integrating these two theoretical frameworks has the capacity to spur progress in psychology and to clarify what is needed for a comprehensive science of the mind. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":21016,"journal":{"name":"Psychological review","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2024-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139513556","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Empirical evidence for perspectival similarity. 视角相似性的经验证据。

IF 5.4 1区心理学

Psychological review Pub Date : 2024-01-01 Epub Date: 2023-01-16 DOI: 10.1037/rev0000403

Jorge Morales, Chaz Firestone

{"title":"Empirical evidence for perspectival similarity.","authors":"Jorge Morales, Chaz Firestone","doi":"10.1037/rev0000403","DOIUrl":"10.1037/rev0000403","url":null,"abstract":"When a circular coin is rotated in depth, is there any sense in which it comes to resemble an ellipse? While this question is at the center of a rich and divided philosophical tradition (with some scholars answering affirmatively and some negatively), Morales et al. (2020, 2021) took an empirical approach, reporting 10 experiments whose results favor such perspectival similarity. Recently, Burge and Burge (2022) offered a vigorous critique of this work, objecting to its approach and conclusions on both philosophical and empirical grounds. Here, we answer these objections on both fronts. We show that Burge and Burge's critique rests on misunderstandings of Morales et al.'s claims; of the relation between the data and conclusions; and of the philosophical context in which the work appears. Specifically, Burge and Burge attribute to us a much stronger (and stranger) view than we hold, involving the introduction of \"a new entity\" located \"in some intermediate position(s) between the distal shape and the retinal image.\" We do not hold this view. Indeed, once properly understood, most of Burge and Burge's objections favor Morales et al.'s claims rather than oppose them. Finally, we discuss several questions that remain unanswered, and reflect on a productive path forward on these issues of foundational scientific and philosophical interest. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":21016,"journal":{"name":"Psychological review","volume":" ","pages":"311-320"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9100355","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Reconciling truthfulness and relevance as epistemic and decision-theoretic utility. 将真实性和相关性调和为认识论和决策论效用。

IF 5.4 1区心理学

Psychological review Pub Date : 2024-01-01 Epub Date: 2023-08-17 DOI: 10.1037/rev0000437

Theodore R Sumers, Mark K Ho, Thomas L Griffiths, Robert D Hawkins

{"title":"Reconciling truthfulness and relevance as epistemic and decision-theoretic utility.","authors":"Theodore R Sumers, Mark K Ho, Thomas L Griffiths, Robert D Hawkins","doi":"10.1037/rev0000437","DOIUrl":"10.1037/rev0000437","url":null,"abstract":"People use language to influence others' beliefs and actions. Yet models of communication have diverged along these lines, formalizing the speaker's objective in terms of either the listener's beliefs or actions. We argue that this divergence lies at the root of a longstanding controversy over the Gricean maxims of truthfulness and relevance. We first bridge the divide by introducing a speaker model which considers both the listener's beliefs (epistemic utility) and their actions (decision-theoretic utility). We show that formalizing truthfulness as an epistemic utility and relevance as a decision-theoretic utility reconciles the tension between them, readily explaining puzzles such as context-dependent standards of truthfulness. We then test a set of novel predictions generated by our model. We introduce a new signaling game which decouples utterances' truthfulness and relevance, then use it to conduct a pair of experiments. Our first experiment demonstrates that participants jointly maximize epistemic and decision-theoretic utility, rather than either alone. Our second experiment shows that when the two conflict, participants make a graded tradeoff rather than prioritizing one over the other. These results demonstrate that human communication cannot be reduced to influencing beliefs or actions alone. Taken together, our work provides a new foundation for grounding rational communication not only in what we believe, but in what those beliefs lead us to do. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":21016,"journal":{"name":"Psychological review","volume":" ","pages":"194-230"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"10017214","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Conditioned inhibition, inhibitory learning, response inhibition, and inhibitory control: Outlining a conceptual clarification. 条件性抑制、抑制性学习、反应抑制和抑制控制：概念澄清概要。

IF 5.4 1区心理学

Psychological review Pub Date : 2024-01-01 Epub Date: 2022-12-22 DOI: 10.1037/rev0000405

Rodrigo Sosa

{"title":"Conditioned inhibition, inhibitory learning, response inhibition, and inhibitory control: Outlining a conceptual clarification.","authors":"Rodrigo Sosa","doi":"10.1037/rev0000405","DOIUrl":"10.1037/rev0000405","url":null,"abstract":"Inhibition can be defined as a phenomenon in which an agent prevents or suppresses a behavioral state that would otherwise occur. Associative learning studies have extensively examined how experiences shape the acquisition of inhibitory behavioral tendencies across many species and situations. Associative inhibitory phenomena can be studied at various levels of analysis. One could focus on the trajectory of behavioral change involved in learning from negative statistical associations between discrete events (inhibitory learning). Alternatively, one could be interested in the effects of accumulated experience with those negative associations (conditioned inhibition). One could rather be interested in how organisms implement what they learn through experiences involving negative associations (response inhibition). Yet, one could inquire into how the capacity of learning negative associations and performing accordingly varies between individuals and along time for the same individual (inhibitory control). This article presents a tentative taxonomy addressing different levels of analysis of associative inhibitory phenomena by using different terms for each. In addition, recent evidence and certain unresolved issues at each level are thoroughly scrutinized and contrasted with prior findings. The empirical and theoretical advances made by modeling inhibition as an associative learning phenomenon have provided scaffolds for the current knowledge and emerging accounts of the topic. Some of those emerging accounts have the potential to bridge different levels of analysis and foster \"cross-pollination\" of ideas among broad fields beyond associative learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":21016,"journal":{"name":"Psychological review","volume":" ","pages":"138-173"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"10419985","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Human hunger as a memory process. 人类的饥饿是一种记忆过程。

IF 5.4 1区心理学

Psychological review Pub Date : 2024-01-01 Epub Date: 2023-01-12 DOI: 10.1037/rev0000413

Richard J Stevenson, Martin R Yeomans, Heather M Francis

{"title":"Human hunger as a memory process.","authors":"Richard J Stevenson, Martin R Yeomans, Heather M Francis","doi":"10.1037/rev0000413","DOIUrl":"10.1037/rev0000413","url":null,"abstract":"Hunger refers to (1) the meaning of certain bodily sensations; (2) a mental state of anticipation that food will be good to eat; and (3) an organizing principal, which prioritizes feeding. Definitions (1) and (2) are the focus here, as (3) can be considered their consequent. Definition (1) has been linked to energy-depletion models of hunger, but these are no longer thought viable. Definition (2) has been linked to learning and memory (L&M) models of hunger, but these apply just to palatable foods. Nonetheless, L&M probably forms the basis for hunger generally, as damage to declarative memory can eradicate the experience of hunger. Currently, there is no general L&M model of hunger, little understanding of how physiology intersects with a L&M approach, and no understanding of how Definitions (1) and (2) are related. We present a new L&M model of human hunger. People learn associations between internal (e.g., tummy rumbles) and external cues (e.g., brand names) and food. These associations can be to specific foods (episodic memories) or food-related categories (semantic memories). When a cue is encountered, it may lead to food-related memory retrieval. If retrieval occurs, the memory's affective content allows one to know if food will be good to eat now-hunger-a cognitive operation learned in childhood. These memory processes are acutely inhibited during satiety, and chronically by multiple biological parameters, allowing physiology to modulate hunger. Implications are considered for the process of making hunger judgments, thirst, the cephalic phase response, and motivational and lay theories of hunger. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":21016,"journal":{"name":"Psychological review","volume":" ","pages":"174-193"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"10519105","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Spatial versus graphical representation of distributional semantic knowledge. 分布语义知识的空间表示与图形表示。

IF 5.4 1区心理学

Psychological review Pub Date : 2024-01-01 Epub Date: 2023-11-13 DOI: 10.1037/rev0000451

Shufan Mao, Philip A Huebner, Jon A Willits

{"title":"Spatial versus graphical representation of distributional semantic knowledge.","authors":"Shufan Mao, Philip A Huebner, Jon A Willits","doi":"10.1037/rev0000451","DOIUrl":"10.1037/rev0000451","url":null,"abstract":"Spatial distributional semantic models represent word meanings in a vector space. While able to model many basic semantic tasks, they are limited in many ways, such as their inability to represent multiple kinds of relations in a single semantic space and to directly leverage indirect relations between two lexical representations. To address these limitations, we propose a distributional graphical model that encodes lexical distributional data in a graphical structure and uses spreading activation for determining the plausibility of word sequences. We compare our model to existing spatial and graphical models by systematically varying parameters that contributing to dimensions of theoretical interest in semantic modeling. In order to be certain about what the models should be able to learn, we trained each model on an artificial corpus describing events in an artificial world simulation containing experimentally controlled verb-noun selectional preferences. The task used for model evaluation requires recovering observed selectional preferences and inferring semantically plausible but never observed verb-noun pairs. We show that the distributional graphical model performed better than all other models. Further, we argue that the relative success of this model comes from its improved ability to access the different orders of spatial representations with the spreading activation on the graph, enabling the model to infer the plausibility of noun-verb pairs unobserved in the training data. The model integrates classical ideas of representing semantic knowledge in a graph with spreading activation and more recent trends focused on the extraction of lexical distributional data from large natural language corpora. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":21016,"journal":{"name":"Psychological review","volume":" ","pages":"104-137"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"92156312","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Perspectival shapes are viewpoint-dependent relational properties. 视角形状是与视角相关的关系属性。

IF 5.4 1区心理学

Psychological review Pub Date : 2024-01-01 Epub Date: 2022-12-22 DOI: 10.1037/rev0000404

Tony Cheng, Yi Lin, Chen-Wei Wu

{"title":"Perspectival shapes are viewpoint-dependent relational properties.","authors":"Tony Cheng, Yi Lin, Chen-Wei Wu","doi":"10.1037/rev0000404","DOIUrl":"10.1037/rev0000404","url":null,"abstract":"Recently, there is a renewed debate concerning the role of perspective in vision. Morales et al. (2020) present evidence that, in the case of viewing a rotated coin, the visual system is sensitive to what has often been called \"perspectival shapes.\" It has generated vigorous discussions, including an online symposium by Morales and Cohen, an exchange between Linton (2021) and Morales et al. (2021), and most recently, a fierce critique by Burge and Burge (2022), in which they launch various conceptual and empirical objections. Although Morales and Firestone (2022) have responded to them recently, and we are in agreement with Morales and Firestone in general, there are further problems in Burge and Burge (2022) that are worth highlighting. The main point of this comment is that what the Burge-Burge team call \"viewpoint-dependent relational properties\" are simply instances of what the Morales-Firestone team call \"perspectival shapes\"; the confusion arises from Burge and Burge's misconstrual of Morales et al.'s claims. This shows that conceptually, the two teams are in large agreement, as Morales and Firestone (2022) also point out, and the focus should be put on the empirical disagreements, which has been covered by Morales and Firestone (2022). Relatedly, we argue that Burge and Burge (2022) misinterpret Morales et al. (2020) as supporting a new entity in perception science, and that this misinterpretation is a primary source of their apparent disagreement. This is worth pointing out because such misunderstanding generates many unnecessary quarrels that hinder progress. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":21016,"journal":{"name":"Psychological review","volume":" ","pages":"307-310"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"10419986","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Ideonamic: An integrative computational dynamic model of ideomotor learning and effect-based action control. Ideonamic：意念运动学习和基于效果的行动控制的综合计算动态模型。

IF 5.4 1区心理学

Psychological review Pub Date : 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.1037/rev0000460

Diana Vogel-Blaschka, Wilfried Kunde, Oliver Herbort, Stefan Scherbaum

{"title":"Ideonamic: An integrative computational dynamic model of ideomotor learning and effect-based action control.","authors":"Diana Vogel-Blaschka, Wilfried Kunde, Oliver Herbort, Stefan Scherbaum","doi":"10.1037/rev0000460","DOIUrl":"10.1037/rev0000460","url":null,"abstract":"According to ideomotor theory, actions are represented, controlled, and retrieved in terms of the perceptual effects that these actions experientially engender. When agents perform a motor action, they observe its subsequent perceptual effects and establish action-effect associations. When they want to achieve this effect at a later time, they use the action-effect associations to preactivate the action by internally activating the effect representation. Ideomotor theory has received extensive support in recent years. To capture this particular effect-based view on action control and goal-directed behavior, we developed IDEONAMIC, an integrative computational model based on dynamic field theory that represents the specific components of the action control process as dynamic neural fields. We show that IDEONAMIC applies conveniently to different types of experimental ideomotor settings, simulates key findings, generates novel predictions from the dynamics of data, and allows reapproaching the underlying cognitive mechanisms from a computational point of view. We encourage the application of IDEONAMIC to more types of ideomotor settings to gain insights into effect-based action control. The model is available at https://osf.io/hbc6n. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":21016,"journal":{"name":"Psychological review","volume":"131 1","pages":"79-103"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139725654","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Cultural evolutionary pragmatics: Investigating the codevelopment and coevolution of language and social cognition. 文化进化语用学：调查语言和社会认知的编码发展和共同进化。

IF 5.4 1区心理学

Psychological review Pub Date : 2024-01-01 Epub Date: 2023-03-02 DOI: 10.1037/rev0000423

Paula Rubio-Fernandez

{"title":"Cultural evolutionary pragmatics: Investigating the codevelopment and coevolution of language and social cognition.","authors":"Paula Rubio-Fernandez","doi":"10.1037/rev0000423","DOIUrl":"10.1037/rev0000423","url":null,"abstract":"Language and social cognition come together in communication, but their relation has been intensely contested. Here, I argue that these two distinctively human abilities are connected in a positive feedback loop, whereby the development of one cognitive skill boosts the development of the other. More specifically, I hypothesize that language and social cognition codevelop in ontogeny and coevolve in diachrony through the acquisition, mature use, and cultural evolution of reference systems (e.g., demonstratives: \"this\" vs. \"that\"; articles: \"a\" vs. \"the\"; pronouns: \"I\" vs. \"you\"). I propose to study the connection between reference systems and communicative social cognition across three parallel timescales-language acquisition, language use, and language change, as a new research program for cultural evolutionary pragmatics. Within that framework, I discuss the coevolution of language and communicative social cognition as cognitive gadgets, and introduce a new methodological approach to study how universals and cross-linguistic differences in reference systems may result in different developmental pathways to human social cognition. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":21016,"journal":{"name":"Psychological review","volume":" ","pages":"18-35"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"10815024","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Deep rest: An integrative model of how contemplative practices combat stress and enhance the body's restorative capacity. 深度休息：关于沉思练习如何对抗压力并增强身体恢复能力的综合模型。

IF 5.4 1区心理学

Psychological review Pub Date : 2024-01-01 Epub Date: 2023-12-25 DOI: 10.1037/rev0000453

Alexandra D Crosswell, Stefanie E Mayer, Lauren N Whitehurst, Martin Picard, Sheyda Zebarjadian, Elissa S Epel

{"title":"Deep rest: An integrative model of how contemplative practices combat stress and enhance the body's restorative capacity.","authors":"Alexandra D Crosswell, Stefanie E Mayer, Lauren N Whitehurst, Martin Picard, Sheyda Zebarjadian, Elissa S Epel","doi":"10.1037/rev0000453","DOIUrl":"10.1037/rev0000453","url":null,"abstract":"Engaging in contemplative practice like meditation, yoga, and prayer, is beneficial for psychological and physical well-being. Recent research has identified several underlying psychological and biological pathways that explain these benefits. However, there is not yet consensus on the underlying overlapping physiological mechanisms of contemplative practice benefits. In this article, we integrate divergent scientific literatures on contemplative practice interventions, stress science, and mitochondrial biology, presenting a unified biopsychosocial model of how contemplative practices reduce stress and promote physical health. We argue that engaging in contemplative practice facilitates a restorative state termed \"deep rest,\" largely through safety signaling, during which energetic resources are directed toward cellular optimization and away from energy-demanding stress states. Our model thus presents a framework for how contemplative practices enhance positive psychological and physiological functioning by optimizing cellular energy consumption. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).","PeriodicalId":21016,"journal":{"name":"Psychological review","volume":" ","pages":"247-270"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2024-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11003855/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139037953","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0