Psychophysiology最新文献

Overcoming Automatic Behavioral Tendencies in Approach-Avoidance Conflict Decisions. 方法回避冲突决策中克服自动行为倾向。

IF 2.9 2区心理学

Psychophysiology Pub Date : 2025-07-01 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.70101

Menghuan Chen, Mario Reutter, Paul Pauli, Matthias Gamer, Andre Pittig

{"title":"Overcoming Automatic Behavioral Tendencies in Approach-Avoidance Conflict Decisions.","authors":"Menghuan Chen, Mario Reutter, Paul Pauli, Matthias Gamer, Andre Pittig","doi":"10.1111/psyp.70101","DOIUrl":"10.1111/psyp.70101","url":null,"abstract":"Adequate control over automatic responses to affective stimuli is crucial for adaptive goal-oriented behavior. However, it remains unclear how individuals overcome automatic approach-avoidance tendencies to appetitive and aversive stimuli. Here we examined free versus forced approach-avoidance decisions to four conditioned stimuli (CSs), which were previously paired with either a single aversive (avCS+) or appetitive outcome (appCS+), both (i.e., conflicting) outcomes (confCS+), or no outcome (neuCS-). These CSs were presented in an anticipation phase before participants could use a joystick to either approach and obtain CS-specific outcomes or avoid without getting anything. Response times, subjective ratings, heart rate, and eye-tracking data were recorded in N = 75 participants. Results revealed that for single outcomes, concordant responses (e.g., avoidance to the avCS+) were faster than forced discordant responses (e.g., approach to the avCS+). During anticipation, gaze fixations shifted towards the spatial location associated with the concordant response for single-outcome stimuli (e.g., upward for avoidance of avCS+). Conflicting stimuli elicited intermediate behavioral and gaze patterns at the group level, while exploratory analyses revealed substantial individual differences: High avoiders (i.e., participants showing an overall high proportion of avoidance) exhibited slower approach responses and greater threat-focused visual attention compared to low avoiders. Decreased heart rate in response to all CSs suggests a general preparation of behavioral responses, while increased pupil dilation during the anticipation of aversive stimuli indicates threat-related processing. These findings suggest that competing outcomes can amplify individual differences in motivational salience and therefore might inspire clinical interventions focused on inhibiting disorder-specific behavioral tendencies.","PeriodicalId":20913,"journal":{"name":"Psychophysiology","volume":"62 7","pages":"e70101"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12232122/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144560963","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

A Negative Reputation Reduces Trust Despite Trustworthy Behavior. 尽管有值得信赖的行为，负面的声誉会降低信任。

IF 2.9 2区心理学

Psychophysiology Pub Date : 2025-07-01 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.70102

Kilian Stenzel, Martin Weiß, Grit Hein

{"title":"A Negative Reputation Reduces Trust Despite Trustworthy Behavior.","authors":"Kilian Stenzel, Martin Weiß, Grit Hein","doi":"10.1111/psyp.70102","DOIUrl":"10.1111/psyp.70102","url":null,"abstract":"Interpersonal trust decisions are guided by reputation. However, it remains unclear how positive and negative prior reputations that are inconsistent with a partner's behavior are integrated at the behavioral and neural levels and how this informs daily trust decisions. In this two-part study, 54 subjects first played an iterated 20-trial Trust Game with four anonymous partners introduced as \"cooperative\" or \"individualistic\" while EEG was recorded. The partners' behavior then either confirmed or contradicted this prior reputation. Subsequently, the subjects completed a three-day ecological assessment measuring trust in daily interactions. According to the results, negative prior reputations were associated with fewer trust decisions, even after being contradicted by cooperative behavior. The frequency of trust decisions remained high if positive prior reputations were confirmed and decreased if they were contradicted. Trial-by-trial analyses showed that negative priors were still related to a lower trust choice probability, even if they were contradicted in the previous trial, paralleled by a decrease in fronto-lateral theta. Mean trust levels across laboratory conditions were descriptively associated with mean trust levels in daily interactions. In sum, these findings indicate that a person with a negative prior reputation is less trusted, even if this person behaves in a positive way.","PeriodicalId":20913,"journal":{"name":"Psychophysiology","volume":"62 7","pages":"e70102"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12214295/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144542051","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Early and Late Mechanisms of Object-Based Attention: Dissociation Between Faces and Non-Face Objects. 基于对象的注意的早期和晚期机制：面孔和非面孔物体之间的分离。

IF 2.9 2区心理学

Psychophysiology Pub Date : 2025-07-01 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.70106

Tong Xie, Shimin Fu

{"title":"Early and Late Mechanisms of Object-Based Attention: Dissociation Between Faces and Non-Face Objects.","authors":"Tong Xie, Shimin Fu","doi":"10.1111/psyp.70106","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.70106","url":null,"abstract":"The object-based attention (OBA) effect has been consistently observed across various objects using the double-rectangle paradigm, but its relevance to faces has sparked controversy. To address this issue, we used the event-related potentials (ERP) technique to examine the temporal dynamics of object processing and its impact on the OBA effect. Behavioral data revealed the presence of the OBA effect for non-face mosaic objects but not for faces. After correcting for attentional horizontal-vertical symmetry, we identified two ERP components associated with the OBA mechanisms: corrected N1 and Late Positive Deflection (LPD). The corrected N1 exhibited a larger amplitude in within-object compared to between-object conditions, regardless of whether faces or non-face objects were presented. In contrast, the corrected LPD showed a larger amplitude in between-object relative to within-object conditions, exclusively for non-face objects. These findings suggest that the corrected N1 and LPD reflect different stages of the OBA mechanism. The early object-based N1 component may reflect the processing of coarse perceptual entities, without detailed object information. In contrast, the later object-based LPD component suggests a more integrated processing of objects with detailed information, where two faces are perceived as a unified whole due to their inherent social connections. This distinction between early and late mechanisms of OBA provides new insights into how attention selected two faces as either integrated or separate operational units.","PeriodicalId":20913,"journal":{"name":"Psychophysiology","volume":"62 7","pages":"e70106"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144576156","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Early and Late ERP Correlates of Conscivousness- A Direct Comparison Between Visual and Auditory Modalities. 意识的早期和晚期ERP相关——视觉和听觉模式的直接比较。

IF 2.9 2区心理学

Psychophysiology Pub Date : 2025-07-01 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.70099

Kinga Ciupińska, Marcin Koculak, Michał Bola, Michał Wierzchoń

{"title":"Early and Late ERP Correlates of Conscivousness- A Direct Comparison Between Visual and Auditory Modalities.","authors":"Kinga Ciupińska, Marcin Koculak, Michał Bola, Michał Wierzchoń","doi":"10.1111/psyp.70099","DOIUrl":"10.1111/psyp.70099","url":null,"abstract":"The majority of previous research on neural correlates of consciousness (NCC) have used the visual system as a model. However, to what extent reported findings generalize to other sensory modalities has not been comprehensively investigated. To fill this gap we directly compared visual and auditory NCCs by testing the same group of participants with two analogous procedures. Participants were presented with near-threshold visual and auditory stimuli followed by a detection task and Perceptual Awareness Scale (PAS). On the behavioral level, as expected from visual awareness studies, PAS ratings were highly correlated with accuracy in the detection task. Analysis of EEG data revealed that analogous ERP components-early visual or auditory awareness negativity (VAN and AAN) were related to perceptual awareness, but regarding late positivity (LP), it was related to perceptual awareness only in the visual modality. Further, we found that VAN and visual LP exhibited shorter latencies than respective auditory components suggesting earlier access of visual stimuli to consciousness, compared to auditory ones. Finally, neither estimated perceptual thresholds nor amplitudes and latencies of the awareness-related ERPs components were correlated between modalities, suggesting a lack of a close link between visual and auditory perceptual mechanisms. Therefore, the observed differences between visual and auditory modalities indicate the investigated NCC are rather modality-specific, and thus that neither of the proposed measures track consciousness independently to the content-related processing.","PeriodicalId":20913,"journal":{"name":"Psychophysiology","volume":"62 7","pages":"e70099"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12217428/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144542052","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Fearful Events Induce Sustained Changes in Spontaneous Aperiodic EEG. 恐惧事件诱发自发性非周期脑电图的持续变化。

IF 2.9 2区心理学

Psychophysiology Pub Date : 2025-07-01 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.70103

Michele Deodato, David Melcher, Patrik Vuilleumier

引用次数: 0

Electrophysiological and Behavioral Responses to Overinclusion Following Preexposure to Social Threat. 预暴露于社会威胁后对过度包容的电生理和行为反应。

IF 2.9 2区心理学

Psychophysiology Pub Date : 2025-07-01 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.70107

Xu Fang, Rudolf Kerschreiter, Yu-Fang Yang, Michael Niedeggen

{"title":"Electrophysiological and Behavioral Responses to Overinclusion Following Preexposure to Social Threat.","authors":"Xu Fang, Rudolf Kerschreiter, Yu-Fang Yang, Michael Niedeggen","doi":"10.1111/psyp.70107","DOIUrl":"10.1111/psyp.70107","url":null,"abstract":"Previous research demonstrated that experiencing a social threat can affect how individuals process subsequent social threats. This \"preexposure effect\" suggests that different social threats, such as loss of control and exclusion, interact within a common cognitive system. In this study, we extended the preexposure effect to examine how a prior social threat influences subsequent positive social interactions. Specifically, we investigated how the experience of a loss of control affects neural processing and retrospective evaluations of subsequent overinclusion. Our findings revealed that the event-related brain potentials (ERPs) previously related to the processing of exclusion and overinclusion (P3 effect) remained unaffected by the preexposure threat. However, the preexposure threat influenced the expression of frontal positivity (P2) which has been previously associated with the processing of social rewards. In addition, we observed that the expression of the perceived threat to belonging and negative mood depends on the continuation-or discontinuation-of the preexposure threat in the subsequent period of overinclusion. These results question the idea of a continuum of social participation ranging from exclusion to overinclusion. The latter appears to be more closely linked to the perceived valence of cues related to social inclusion.","PeriodicalId":20913,"journal":{"name":"Psychophysiology","volume":"62 7","pages":"e70107"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12228052/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144567765","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

MEGAP: A Comprehensive Pipeline for Automatic Preprocessing of Large-Scale Magnetoencephalography Data. MEGAP：大规模脑磁图数据自动预处理的综合流水线。

IF 2.9 2区心理学

Psychophysiology Pub Date : 2025-07-01 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.70109

Seyyed Erfan Mohammadi, Hasti Shabani, Mohammad Mahdi Begmaz, Narjes Soltani Dehaghani

{"title":"MEGAP: A Comprehensive Pipeline for Automatic Preprocessing of Large-Scale Magnetoencephalography Data.","authors":"Seyyed Erfan Mohammadi, Hasti Shabani, Mohammad Mahdi Begmaz, Narjes Soltani Dehaghani","doi":"10.1111/psyp.70109","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.70109","url":null,"abstract":"Magnetoencephalography (MEG) data are often contaminated by various noise and artifacts, necessitating meticulous preprocessing. However, no pipeline has comprehensively examined all aspects of the different types of MEG noise, nor has any automatic preprocessing pipeline ever been presented. The impracticality of performing visual inspections for the preprocessing of large-scale resting state datasets, combined with the absence of automation, hinders the ability to take advantage of such datasets, including increased generalizability. Additionally, the absence of a standardized sequence for MEG preprocessing steps affects the reproducibility of research studies. Our MEG Automatic Pipeline (MEGAP) can automatically reduce noise and artifacts and is the first pipeline that can be used to preprocess large-scale resting state MEG datasets. We developed this pipeline by integrating and sequencing recent algorithms for each preprocessing step, ensuring automated execution, standardization, and organized outputs. The key features of MEGAP include correcting head movements, removing line noise without applying a notch filter, annotating muscle artifacts, removing sensor and environmental noise, and automatically detecting artifact components in Independent Component Analysis (ICA). We validated our pipeline using simulated and experimental data from the Cambridge Centre for Aging and Neuroscience (Cam-CAN) dataset. Substantial improvements were achieved based on different evaluation criteria such as Normalized Mean Square Error (NMSE), correlation, and Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR). MEGAP provides a robust framework for MEG data preprocessing, significantly reducing the manual effort in preprocessing by automating the required steps, contributing to more consistent and reproducible neuroimaging research outcomes, and facilitating the analysis of large-scale MEG studies.","PeriodicalId":20913,"journal":{"name":"Psychophysiology","volume":"62 7","pages":"e70109"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144584609","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Seeing Is Feeling: How Aphantasia Alters Emotional Engagement With Stories. 看即是感觉：幻像症如何改变故事的情感投入。

IF 2.9 2区心理学

Psychophysiology Pub Date : 2025-07-01 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.70100

Noha Abdelrahman, David Melcher, Pablo Ripollés

{"title":"Seeing Is Feeling: How Aphantasia Alters Emotional Engagement With Stories.","authors":"Noha Abdelrahman, David Melcher, Pablo Ripollés","doi":"10.1111/psyp.70100","DOIUrl":"10.1111/psyp.70100","url":null,"abstract":"Visual imagery is thought to act as an \"emotional amplifier,\" potentially contributing to narrative engagement. To examine this, we conducted two experiments in which participants were presented with emotionally charged audio and video story excerpts. Experiment 1 included 84 online participants from the general population, while Experiment 2 involved 25 individuals with aphantasia (the inability to generate mental images) and 25 controls. In both experiments we assessed narrative engagement behaviorally using the Narrative Engagement Questionnaire (NEQ), while for Experiment 2 we also measured physiological responses. We found a main effect of modality, with video stimuli scoring higher across all NEQ subscales in both experiments. Notably, in experiment 2, a significant group effect on emotional-but not cognitive-engagement emerged, with aphantasics reporting less emotional engagement than controls. Moreover, controls experienced higher heart rate during audio narratives, while aphantasics had a similar heart rate across both modalities. Our results suggest that the enhanced physiological response seen in non-aphantasics during audio narratives is driven by the mental effort required to generate imagery. Furthermore, this capacity for visual imagery appears to enhance emotional engagement with stories. This highlights mental imagery's role in both subjective and physiological responses, emphasizing distinct cognitive processes during narrative engagement.","PeriodicalId":20913,"journal":{"name":"Psychophysiology","volume":"62 7","pages":"e70100"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12246669/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144609169","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Frontal and Parietal Activities Associated With Different Inhibitory Processes in a Stroop-Matching/Stop-Signal Task: A Channel-Wise fNIRS Study. 与Stroop-Matching/Stop-Signal Task中不同抑制过程相关的额叶和顶叶活动：一项基于通道的fNIRS研究。

IF 2.9 2区心理学

Psychophysiology Pub Date : 2025-07-01 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.70098

Armando Dos Santos Afonso Junior, Walter Machado-Pinheiro, Luiz Renato Rodrigues Carreiro

{"title":"Frontal and Parietal Activities Associated With Different Inhibitory Processes in a Stroop-Matching/Stop-Signal Task: A Channel-Wise fNIRS Study.","authors":"Armando Dos Santos Afonso Junior, Walter Machado-Pinheiro, Luiz Renato Rodrigues Carreiro","doi":"10.1111/psyp.70098","DOIUrl":"10.1111/psyp.70098","url":null,"abstract":"Inhibition is an important component of cognitive control that encompasses multiple processes, such as interference control, inhibition of prepotent responses and suppression of ongoing responses. Frontal and temporoparietal regions of the cortex are implicated differently in inhibitory functions. The Stroop-matching/stop-signal task is a recent task that uses Stroop stimuli and stop-signals to create conditions that allow the investigation of the three forms of inhibition aforementioned. The task provides a way to distinguish the effect of these inhibitions as well as their interactions using a single task. The present study used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to assess frontal and temporoparietal activations during the Stroop-matching/stop-signal task. The main objective was to investigate which cortical regions each inhibitory function would recruit during this task. Fifty-two young adults (mean age = 21.4, SD = 3.44) participated. Performance results indicated the effects previously found in the Stroop-matching/stop-signal task. fNIRS results showed that the left inferior frontal cortex (IFC) and the bilateral intraparietal sulcus are involved in interference control; the left IFC also showed activation in inhibition of prepotent responses; and the right IFC was involved in the suppression of ongoing responses. The interaction between suppression of responses and the other two forms of inhibition lead to deactivation of frontal and parietal areas. Thus, each form of inhibition demanded by the Stroop-matching/stop-signal task seems to recruit specific cortical regions, supporting the distinction between inhibitory components at the neurophysiological level.","PeriodicalId":20913,"journal":{"name":"Psychophysiology","volume":"62 7","pages":"e70098"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12230933/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144576157","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Physical Mechanisms of Emotions Evoked by Postural Feedback. 姿势反馈诱发情绪的物理机制。

IF 2.9 2区心理学

Psychophysiology Pub Date : 2025-07-01 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.70095

Soren Wainio-Theberge, Ignacio Spiousas, Jorge L Armony

{"title":"Physical Mechanisms of Emotions Evoked by Postural Feedback.","authors":"Soren Wainio-Theberge, Ignacio Spiousas, Jorge L Armony","doi":"10.1111/psyp.70095","DOIUrl":"10.1111/psyp.70095","url":null,"abstract":"Adopting physical expressions of emotion has been shown to have feedback effects on individuals' mood and behavior. For example, adopting the expansive and contractive body language of dominance and submission can affect individuals' feelings of power. However, the effects can be subtle and variable; we suggest that this may be due to inter-individual variability in the physical expression of the experimental posture, including both the magnitude of the posture adopted and the specific muscles used to adopt it. Here, we employed a postural feedback (i.e., \"power posing\") paradigm and recorded quantitative measures of body position algorithmically derived from video recordings (N = 101). We demonstrate for the first time that variation in neck flexion mediates the effects of posture on mood. We also investigated several other variables which, based on previous work, could additionally mediate or moderate the postural feedback effects, finding that subjective difficulty also mediates posture effects independently of neck flexion, with effects moderated by body awareness. Finally, we investigated the muscular processes underlying neck flexion in the posture using electromyography, demonstrating that the neck flexion which mediates mood effects is associated with sternocleidomastoid muscle activity. The present work carries implications for our understanding of the adaptive benefits of expansive and contractive postures, and provides important methodological insights into the paradigms typically used for research on postural feedback.","PeriodicalId":20913,"journal":{"name":"Psychophysiology","volume":"62 7","pages":"e70095"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12206956/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144529334","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0