Journal of Biomedical Optics最新文献

{"title":"Benchmarking deep learning-based reconstruction methods for photoacoustic computed tomography with clinically relevant synthetic datasets.","authors":"Panpan Chen, Seonyeong Park, Gangwon Jeong, Refik Mert Cam, Umberto Villa, Mark A Anastasio","doi":"10.1117/1.JBO.32.S1.S14903","DOIUrl":"10.1117/1.JBO.32.S1.S14903","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Significance: </strong>Deep learning (DL)-based image reconstruction methods for photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT) have developed rapidly in recent years. However, most existing methods have not employed standardized datasets, and their evaluations rely on traditional image quality (IQ) metrics that may lack clinical relevance. The absence of a standardized framework for clinically meaningful IQ assessment hinders fair comparison and raises concerns about the reproducibility and reliability of reported advancements in PACT.</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>A benchmarking framework is proposed that provides open-source, anatomically plausible synthetic datasets and evaluation strategies for DL-based acoustic inversion methods in PACT.</p><p><strong>Approach: </strong>The datasets each include over 10,000 two-dimensional (2D) stochastic breast objects with clinically relevant lesions and paired measurements at varying modeling complexity. The evaluation strategies incorporate both traditional and task-based IQ measures to assess fidelity and clinical utility. A preliminary benchmarking study is conducted to demonstrate the framework's utility by comparing DL-based and physics-based reconstruction methods.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The benchmarking study demonstrated that the proposed framework enabled comprehensive, quantitative comparisons of reconstruction performance and revealed important limitations in certain DL-based methods. Although they performed well according to traditional IQ measures, they often failed to accurately recover lesions. This highlights the inadequacy of traditional metrics and motivates the need for task-based assessments.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The proposed benchmarking framework enables systematic comparisons of DL-based acoustic inversion methods for 2D PACT. By integrating clinically relevant synthetic datasets with rigorous evaluation protocols, it enables reproducible, objective assessments and facilitates method development and system optimization in PACT.</p>","PeriodicalId":15264,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Biomedical Optics","volume":"32 Suppl 1","pages":"S14903"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2027-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13662376/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149182084","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"In-silico investigation into optimal photoacoustic probe design using a digital thyroid phantom.","authors":"Max T Rietberg, Jeroen Veltman, Jelmer M Wolterink, Srirang Manohar","doi":"10.1117/1.JBO.32.S1.S14902","DOIUrl":"10.1117/1.JBO.32.S1.S14902","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Significance: </strong>Thyroid nodules have a high incidence, but a low malignancy rate, placing demands on imaging specificity. Photoacoustic imaging is being studied as a method that could potentially help increase the unsatisfactory specificity of ultrasound, the current first-line imaging method, which would decrease the number of unnecessary clinical interventions.</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>We employ a digital thyroid phantom and numerical simulations to evaluate photoacoustic probe designs on their suitability for thyroid nodule risk estimation.</p><p><strong>Approach: </strong>Using the SIMPA toolkit, we examined 1080 probe configurations with varying illumination geometry, detector shape, pitch, and wavelength combinations. The performance of each probe was quantified on its sensitivity and its accuracy of oxygen saturation estimation.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Optimal performance was found using wavelengths 757 and 800 nm, and a curved detector (0.5 split, 0.40 mm pitch) for external illumination. However, performance increases significantly with endotracheal illumination, using wavelengths of 700 and 800 nm, and a curved detector (0.25 split, 0.40 mm pitch).</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>These results could provide design guidance for optimizing photoacoustic hardware, assisting with the clinical adoption of PAI, which could improve the diagnosis of thyroid nodules.</p>","PeriodicalId":15264,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Biomedical Optics","volume":"32 Suppl 1","pages":"S14902"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2027-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13557616/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148919579","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Force-regulated robotic diffuse reflectance spectroscopy scanning.","authors":"Kaizhong Deng, Zhangxi Zhou, Maxime Giot, Ioannis Gkouzionis, Christopher Peters, George Mylonas, Daniel Elson","doi":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.12.123306","DOIUrl":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.12.123306","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Significance: </strong>Intraoperative discrimination between malignant and benign tissue is essential for achieving complete tumor resection while preserving healthy structures. Robotic diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) enables automated intraoperative tissue assessment, but unregulated probe-tissue contact forces introduce spectral artifacts and risk tissue damage, limiting clinical translation.</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>We present and evaluate an autonomous robotic DRS scanning system incorporating real-time contact force regulation to enable safe, repeatable, and large-area <i>ex vivo</i> tissue assessment.</p><p><strong>Approach: </strong>A serial robot manipulator equipped with a fiber-optic DRS probe, load cell, and camera employed hybrid visual servoing and force feedback control, maintaining 0.08 N target force with <math><mrow><mo><</mo> <mn>0.30</mn> <mtext>  </mtext> <mi>N</mi></mrow> </math> peak limits. Performance was evaluated on <i>ex vivo</i> bovine and ovine tissues including scanning safety, force regulation versus expert operators, spectral consistency across six novice operators, and tissue classification using support vector machines.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The system achieved 100% and 93% scan completion rates on bovine and ovine tissues, respectively, without visible tissue damage. Autonomous operation enabled 46 continuous trials over <math><mrow><mo>∼</mo> <mn>30</mn> <mtext>  </mtext> <mi>min</mi></mrow> </math> without human intervention. Mean applied force (0.079 N) matched manual sampling (0.080 N) with reduced variance and lower peak forces. Robotic spectral acquisitions aligned with manual measurements, yielding mean inter-observer spectral angles of 1.43 deg, comparable to inter-human operator variability. Tissue classification demonstrated high discriminatory accuracy in bench-top validation.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Force-regulated robotic DRS enables standardized, autonomous tissue scanning with expert-level spectral consistency, advancing spectroscopic sensing toward reliable automated surgical margin assessment.</p>","PeriodicalId":15264,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Biomedical Optics","volume":"31 12","pages":"123306"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13649288/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149136867","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Autonomous robotic alignment and dynamic illumination control of an ophthalmic slit lamp for <i>in vivo</i> anterior segment imaging.","authors":"Morgan McCloud, Nipun Hewage, Joseph A Izatt, Mark Draelos, Anthony N Kuo, Ryan P McNabb","doi":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.12.123304","DOIUrl":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.12.123304","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Significance: </strong>The slit lamp is the gold standard ophthalmic instrument for examining the anterior segment of the eye. Slit lamps require the mechanical stabilization of patients to facilitate alignment and a specialized technician to operate. The growing demand for ophthalmic care and shortages of specialists highlight the need for alternative diagnostic technologies.</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>We demonstrate an autonomously aligning, contactless slit lamp enabled by a vision-guided robot to acquire anterior segment images without mechanical patient stabilization.</p><p><strong>Approach: </strong>We integrate three subsystems mounted to a collaborative robot arm: a custom optical system for dynamic slit illumination, vision-based sensors, and color cameras. A hierarchical control strategy is employed to maintain alignment. Programmable illumination patterns are projected onto the cornea to replicate slit-lamp examination maneuvers.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The device autonomously aligned to the eyes of <i>in vivo</i> human subjects, and we collected color images of the anterior segment during alignment. Dynamic slit illumination compensated for motion with a latency of 86 ms, allowing slit alignment to be maintained during imaging without mechanical stabilization.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>These results demonstrate the feasibility of autonomous, contactless slit-lamp imaging through the use of robotic alignment and dynamic illumination. Such advancements could expand access to anterior segment diagnostic imaging.</p>","PeriodicalId":15264,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Biomedical Optics","volume":"31 12","pages":"123304"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13391205/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148562166","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Fast robot-to-iOCT calibration using conical geometry and 2D cross-scan OCT.","authors":"Krzysztof Gromada, Tomasz Piesio, Piotr Kasprzycki, Andrea Curatolo, Karol Karnowski","doi":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.12.123305","DOIUrl":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.12.123305","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Significance: </strong>Accurate spatial registration between optical coherence tomography (OCT) and robotic coordinate systems is critical for OCT-guided microsurgery, where precise tool localization is essential for safe, reliable intervention.</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>We propose and validate a practical and accurate method for calibrating the transformation between OCT and robot coordinate systems in robotic microsurgical systems.</p><p><strong>Approach: </strong>A conical calibration tool rigidly attached to the robot wrist was scanned using fast 2D OCT cross-sections. After denoising, edge extraction, and two-line fitting, the cone tip was localized, and the resulting coordinates were incorporated into a vector-based three-point calibration to recover the OCT-to-robot transformation. The method supports both manual and automated operation, including pose adjustment to improve scan-plane alignment.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Experiments with a swept-source OCT system, a Meca500 robot, and a 3D-printed calibration tool showed stable registration across the OCT working range. The method also remained robust in the presence of OCT noise and moderate manufacturing imperfections of the cone geometry. The single cone-tip localization repeatability was estimated to be <math><mrow><mn>34.7</mn> <mtext>  </mtext> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>m</mi></mrow> </math> , where calibrating over 16 mm of OCT X-Y lateral field-of-view range translates to 0.31% of linear calibration uncertainty in a bench-top environment.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The proposed cone-based framework provides a practical and accurate solution for routine robot-to-OCT calibration in high-precision surgical systems.</p>","PeriodicalId":15264,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Biomedical Optics","volume":"31 12","pages":"123305"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13520882/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148840335","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"3D-motion mapping of the malleus-incus complex using a robot-mounted optical coherence tomography vibrometry system.","authors":"Nathan Goedseels, Pieter Livens, Yang Li, Guy Fierens, Nicolas Verhaert, Tristan Putzeys","doi":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.12.123303","DOIUrl":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.12.123303","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Significance: </strong>Optical coherence tomography vibrometry (OCTv) allows measuring the surface and subsurface nanometer vibrations of the mammalian ossicular chain. However, existing multidimensional OCTv setups remain expensive, complex, or limited in accuracy.</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>We developed a 3D OCTv setup with a rotational component and provided a theoretical framework that clarifies the main determinants of measurement accuracy in 3D vibrometry.</p><p><strong>Approach: </strong>A commercially available OCTv system is mounted on a robotic arm to allow multidimensional measurements. The relative positions of measured structures and the optical axes orientation are defined with a custom volume registration algorithm.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>We present a mathematical framework for decomposing the measured motion components into a Cartesian space and identify key factors that influence the decomposition accuracy. The angular accuracy of optical axis estimation was 0.4 deg. Experimental validation was performed on an oscillating phantom and on the malleus-incus complex (MIC) of a fresh human temporal bone specimen, replicating previous evidence on the MIC's frequency-dependent vibratory behavior.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The robot-mounted 3D OCTv setup provides a cost-effective, robust, and integral solution for mapping middle ear 3D vibrations, accurately orienting optical axes across measurements. Future work should integrally map the ossicular chain to test the commonly assumed rigid-body behavior of ossicular motion.</p>","PeriodicalId":15264,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Biomedical Optics","volume":"31 12","pages":"123303"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12935278/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147306155","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Robot-assisted minimally invasive photoacoustic imaging for monitoring liver ablation using diffusing fiber illumination.","authors":"Shang Gao, Xihan Ma, Yanbo Hua, Sharath Bhagavatula, Guigen Liu, Oliver Jonas, Haichong K Zhang","doi":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.12.123302","DOIUrl":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.12.123302","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Significance: </strong>Accurate intraoperative assessment of ablation completeness in liver radiofrequency ablation (RFA) remains a clinical challenge, as conventional imaging lacks real-time capability to delineate necrotic boundaries. Incomplete ablation increases recurrence risk, underscoring the need for real-time, high-resolution imaging with functional tissue differentiation.</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>We propose a robot-assisted photoacoustic (PA) imaging system employing a customized diffusing optical fiber to improve intraoperative monitoring of liver RFA.</p><p><strong>Approach: </strong>The system integrates circumferential wide-field illumination for enhanced tissue coverage with robotic automated 3D scanning and co-registered ultrasound. Spectroscopic PA imaging differentiates necrotic from viable tissue based on optical absorption, whereas a standard Hough transform algorithm suppresses fiber-induced artifacts. Validation was performed using <i>ex vivo</i> and cadaveric swine liver studies.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>In cadaveric studies, 3D lesion mapping showed necrotic zones of <math><mrow><mn>7.55</mn> <mo>×</mo> <mn>5.37</mn> <mo>×</mo> <mn>7.42</mn> <mtext>  </mtext> <mi>mm</mi></mrow> </math> , closely matching gross pathology measurements (7.93 mm average diameter), confirming system accuracy.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The proposed system enables accurate, real-time visualization of ablation lesions <i>in situ</i>, offering a clinically viable approach to improve treatment precision and reduce recurrence in liver RFA procedures.</p>","PeriodicalId":15264,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Biomedical Optics","volume":"31 12","pages":"123302"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12921445/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147270943","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Building the future of biophotonics through experiential education and seasonal schools.","authors":"Patience Mthunzi-Kufa, Jacqueline Maphutha, Zenande Mcotshana, Phumulani Mcoyi","doi":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.11.113505","DOIUrl":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.11.113505","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Significance: </strong>Photonics represents a low-hanging fruit and a highly lucrative industry on the global stage, with applications spanning healthcare and biophotonics, energy and environmental photonics, agriculture and food systems, quantum photonics, telecommunications and data communications, among many other sectors. Despite this breadth of opportunity, the availability of structured biophotonics courses and programs remains limited, largely due to the inherently multidisciplinary nature of the field. Compounding this challenge, many schools, particularly in developing countries, lack adequate science laboratories, especially at the secondary level, thereby depriving learners of the practical exposure necessary to grasp fundamental theoretical concepts meaningfully.</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>These gaps underscore the need for innovative and creative approaches to education and capacity development.</p><p><strong>Approach: </strong>Initiatives such as job-shadowing opportunities, outreach activities, summer schools, and diverse forms of online learning are therefore essential in widening access and building foundational skills.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Introducing photonics, optics, and biophotonics at the high-school and undergraduate levels would significantly strengthen the talent pipeline, cultivating scarce and highly sought-after skills.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Against this backdrop, this paper highlights the importance of targeted strategies that advance biophotonics education and capacity building as a catalyst for sectoral growth.</p>","PeriodicalId":15264,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Biomedical Optics","volume":"31 11","pages":"113505"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13278898/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148295167","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Development of solid-state fluorescence lifetime standards for clinical applications using dyed epoxy resins.","authors":"Dario Angelone, Keela Hughes, Hasti Yavari, Sara Eugenia Garduño Gómez, Brian C Wilson, Stefan Andersson-Engels, Katarzyna Komolibus, Sanathana Konugolu Venkata Sekar","doi":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.11.113503","DOIUrl":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.11.113503","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Significance: </strong>Fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIm) offers label-free contrast based on intrinsic tissue properties, making it a promising tool for clinical diagnostics and intraoperative guidance. However, the lack of robust, reproducible standards for system validation limits cross-platform comparability, impedes quality assurance, and hinders clinical translation.</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>We aim to develop and characterize a set of stable solid-state fluorescence lifetime (FLT) standards using dyed epoxy resins, with the goal of enabling reliable calibration, benchmarking, and validation of FLIm systems in both research and clinical environments.</p><p><strong>Approach: </strong>A series of solid standards incorporating different dyes were fabricated to span a range of lifetimes from sub-nanosecond to over 3.5 ns. These materials were evaluated for FLT, emission intensity, photostability under UV exposure, and fabrication repeatability. The influence of dye concentration and microstructural uniformity was assessed using a confocal microscope. The standards were also applied to validate a chip-on-tip FLIm micro-camera designed for endoscopic imaging.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The dyed epoxy standards demonstrated consistent and reproducible lifetimes, good photostability, and scalable fabrication. Confocal imaging revealed some microstructural heterogeneity, whereas bulk measurements remained robust. The standards enabled effective validation of the FLIm micro-camera, including spatial and temporal resolution assessment, and highlighted platform-dependent biases in lifetime estimation.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Dyed epoxy materials show strong potential as practical, scalable tools for FLIm system calibration and quality assurance. These standards may support cross-platform validation and benchmarking of emerging FLIm technologies and could contribute to the development of future regulatory frameworks for clinical adoption.</p>","PeriodicalId":15264,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Biomedical Optics","volume":"31 11","pages":"113503"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13012335/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147512328","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Spatio-temporal optical coherence imaging and tomography for <i>in vivo</i> applications.","authors":"Maciej Wojtkowski","doi":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.11.113504","DOIUrl":"10.1117/1.JBO.31.11.113504","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Significance: </strong>Strong scattering in biological tissues limits the achievable imaging depth and produces noiseboth coherent and incoherentthat impairs contrast in volumetric <i>in vivo</i> reconstructions. By dynamically tailoring spatial and temporal coherence to suppress scattered photons, spatio-temporal optical coherence imaging (STOC) enables high-contrast, high-resolution <i>in vivo</i> visualization, with direct applications in ophthalmic diagnostics and complex tissue imaging.</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>The primary aim of this work is to formalize and validate the theoretical foundations and practical implementations of STOC and its three-dimensional volumetric extension, spatio-temporal optical coherence tomography (STOC-T). Specifically, the study seeks to demonstrate their ability to enhance imaging performance in scattering media, benchmark against current optical coherence methods, and assess their readiness for clinical application.</p><p><strong>Approach: </strong>This work mainly reviews advances in spatio-temporal optical coherence imaging and tomography, and includes an original description of filtering multiply scattered signals derived from a generalized diffraction model, showing that application of STOC-T obeys the first Born approximation.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Spatio-temporal optical coherence Imaging and tomography markedly improved image fidelity in highly scattering media, demonstrated by enhanced fringe contrast and reduced incoherent background across phantoms and biological tissues. STOC-T achieved high-resolution, high-contrast <i>in vivo</i> visualization of challenging structures, including retinal layers and choroidal microvasculature, with markedly improved delineation compared with conventional coherence imaging. Quantitatively, STOC-T extended effective imaging depth while preserving lateral resolution ( <math><mrow><mo>∼</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mtext>  </mtext> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>m</mi></mrow> </math> ) and exhibited coherence noise suppression and high phase stability. Performance metrics revealed contrast improvements in retinal ganglion cell soma imaging, with shot-noise-limited sensitivity attainable under appropriate conditions. Practical limitations such as high data volume, camera bandwidth demands, and computational load were identified, alongside potential pathways for further enhancement through optimized phase coding and adaptive acquisition strategies.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Spatio-temporal optical coherence imaging and tomography enable high-contrast, deep volumetric imaging with improved resolution by combining phase modulation, spectral sweeping, and coherence control. Validated <i>in vivo</i>, it resolves fine retinal/choroidal structures beyond conventional OCT limitations. Its simple hardware and computational emphasis position it for clinical translation, despite challenges in data volume and acquisition demands.</p>","PeriodicalId":15264,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Biomedical Optics","volume":"31 11","pages":"113504"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13210890/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148042478","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}