International Journal of Nanomedicine最新文献

{"title":"Two-Dimensional Magnesium Phosphate Nanosheets Promote Antibacterial Effects and Wound Closure.","authors":"Salma Younes, Salma M S Ahmad, Pannawich Thirabowonkitphithan, Shaden H Abunasser, Nouran Zein, Amir Elhadad, Asada Leelahavanichkul, Wanida Laiwattanapaisal, Awni Al-Otoom, Khaled A Mahmoud, Faleh Tamimi, Gheyath K Nasrallah","doi":"10.2147/IJN.S512579","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S512579","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>NeoPhylaxis is a patented two-dimensional (2D) magnesium phosphate (MgP) hydrogel, initially approved in 2023 for dental applications such as implant decontamination, it has demonstrated strong safety and efficacy. This study explores its repurposing for antimicrobial and wound healing applications.</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>To synthesize, characterize, and investigate the antibacterial properties, biocompatibility, and wound-healing potential of MgP hydrogel.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>The MgP hydrogel was synthesized via controlled crystallization of a sodium magnesium-phosphate system. Its structural and compositional properties were characterized using Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX). Antibacterial efficacy was evaluated in vitro, while biocompatibility and wound healing efficacy were assessed in vivo using BALB/c mouse model. Mechanistic insights into the hydrogel's antibacterial properties were further investigated via SEM and TEM.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>MgP hydrogels exhibited a dose-dependent antibacterial effect, reducing <i>S. aureus</i> by at least 10-fold and <i>E. coli</i> by over 20-fold compared to controls. SEM and TEM analyses revealed extensive bacterial cell damage, including membrane deformation and compromised cell wall integrity. Treated mice displayed no signs of irritation, erythema, or edema post hydrogel treatment. Wound closure was significantly enhanced in MgP-treated mice, reaching 46% by Day 5 vs 37% in controls (p =0.008).</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>These findings highlight the potential of 2D MgP nanosheets as a multifunctional therapeutic agent for antimicrobial and wound healing applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":14084,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Nanomedicine","volume":"20 ","pages":"12103-12115"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12506775/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145258188","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Bioinspired RGD-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles for Integrin-Driven Interaction with Melanoma Cells.","authors":"Annarita Del Gatto, Patrizia Di Pietro, Michele Saviano, Marianna Flora Tomasello, Giuseppe Pappalardo, Rony Snyders, Giuseppe Forte, Cristina Satriano, Laura Zaccaro","doi":"10.2147/IJN.S527082","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S527082","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Purpose: </strong>In this study, we investigated the physicochemical properties, biofunctionalization and internalization mechanisms of peptide-functionalized gold nanoparticles (GNPs), with a particular focus on a cyclic a_vβ₃ integrin-targeting ligand (cRGD), embedded in a scaffold comprising a gold-binding glycine-cysteine tetrapeptide (GCt) and a fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) dye.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>The characterisation of the GNPs and their biofunctionalised counterparts (b-GNPs) was carried out by a series of techniques including dynamic light scattering (DLS), zeta potential (ζ) measurements, UV-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and theoretical modelling. Cellular uptake experiments were performed in human adenocarcinoma (HeLa, a_vβ₃ non-expressing cells, negative control) and metastatic melanoma (WM266, a_vβ₃-overexpressing cells, positive control) cells to assess receptor-mediated internalization.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The physicochemical characterisation confirmed the successful functionalisation of GNPs with the bioinspired multifunctional cRGD-GCt-FITC moiety. Detailed analysis of the nano-bio interface revealed distinct chemical states and evidence of charge transfer effects between the GNPs surface and the RGD-containing peptide. Cellular studies demonstrated selective uptake and preferential accumulation of b-GNPs in a_vβ₃-overexpressing cells, with RGD-functionalised GNPs inducing notable pro-apoptotic effects.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>This work provides new understanding of biomimetic gold nanoparticles and highlights their potential in tumour selective strategies, particularly for integring-targeted theranostics, while addressing toxicity and targeting limitations of current RGD- and gold nanoparticle-based nanomedicine.</p>","PeriodicalId":14084,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Nanomedicine","volume":"20 ","pages":"12057-12073"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12502969/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145250979","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Design and Optimization of Trastuzumab-Functionalized Nanolipid Carriers for Targeted Capecitabine Delivery: Anti-Cancer Effectiveness Evaluation in MCF-7 and SKBR3 Cells.","authors":"Shubhashree Das, Bhabani Sankar Satapathy, Gurudutta Pattnaik, Sovan Pattanaik, Yahya Alhamhoom, Mohamed Rahamathulla, Mohammed Muqtader Ahmed, Ismail Pasha","doi":"10.2147/IJN.S541332","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S541332","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Breast cancer remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality in women globally. The main purpose of the research to develop, optimise and characterise a trastuzumab (TZ)-functionalized nanolipid carrier (NCs) encapsulating capecitabine, as a targeted strategy to breast cancer cells, to enhance therapeutic efficacy and reduce the severe side effects associated with conventional chemotherapy.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Capecitabine encapsulated NCs (CBNCs) were prepared by thin-film hydration technique, optimized by Box-Behnken design. The optimized formulation CBNCs were subsequently conjugated with TZ by using EDC-NHS chemistry. The prepared formulations of NCs were evaluated by FTIR, DSC, XRD, FESEM, TEM, AFM, drug loading, entrapment efficiency, average particle size, PDI, zeta potential, in vitro drug release. The successful surface conjugation of TZ was tested by BCA assay and SDS-PAGE analysis. In vitro targeting efficiency and cytotoxicity initially tested in MCF-7 cells (HER2-low expressing) and subsequently validated in SKBR3 cells (HER2-overexpressing) to confirm receptor-mediated uptake and specificity.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Optimized CBNCs were found spherical, nanosized (194.6 nm), with a zeta potential -25.55 mV for CBNCs, which increased to -57.76 mV upon TZ conjugation. The formulation showed 8.5% drug loading capacity and 84.26% drug release over 72 h. FTIR and DSC showed compatibility of drug and lipid components with no major shifting in characteristic peaks. TEM and AFM confirmed formation of stable, spherical discrete nanostructures. TZ conjugation showed minor alternation in average size/surface charge/morphology/texture. Successful TZ conjugation onto CBNCs was confirmed by BCA assay and SDS-PAGE. Fluorescence microscopy confirmed successful cellular internalization. MTT assay on SKBR3 cells demonstrated significantly higher cytotoxicity for TZ-CBNCs compared to CBNCs and free drug, thereby validating the HER2-specific targeting effect beyond preliminary results obtained in MCF-7 cells.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>In view of the desired physicochemical properties, controlled drug release, and in vitro anticancer effectiveness, further in vivo investigations should be prioritized to validate its clinical application in HER2-positive breast cancer treatment. Nonetheless, the use of HER2-low MCF-7 cells in early assays highlights the importance of complementary validation in HER2-overexpressing models, as addressed by SKBR3 testing in this study.</p>","PeriodicalId":14084,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Nanomedicine","volume":"20 ","pages":"12075-12102"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12503056/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145250900","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Advanced Nanoparticle-Engineered Platforms for Peripheral Nerve Repair: Multimodal Therapeutic Strategies and Clinical Translation.","authors":"Shaoyan Shi, Xingxing Yu, Xuehai Ou, Changming Zheng, Fei Xie, Yansheng Huang","doi":"10.2147/IJN.S547018","DOIUrl":"10.2147/IJN.S547018","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) remain a major clinical challenge, with current surgical interventions often falling short of restoring full function. Nanoparticle (NP)-engineered platforms are emerging as transformative tools in peripheral nerve repair by enabling multimodal therapeutic delivery, spatiotemporal control of the microenvironment, and biomimetic structural support. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the design of inorganic, polymeric, and hybrid NPs that deliver neurotrophic factors, anti-inflammatory agents, and genetic material with high precision. Functionalization strategies-ranging from conductive and piezoelectric materials to antioxidant and immunomodulatory components-enable dynamic regulation of cellular behaviors critical for regeneration. Integration of NPs into next-generation scaffolds, including smart-responsive conduits and bioactive matrices, enhances axonal guidance and Schwann cell support. We further discuss preclinical outcomes demonstrating robust functional recovery and address translational barriers, including NP toxicity, scalable fabrication, and regulatory considerations. Finally, we outline future directions involving theranostic systems and AI-guided design for personalized nerve repair. Collectively, NP-engineered systems represent a paradigm shift in peripheral nerve regeneration, offering a multifaceted approach that bridges material science, bioengineering, and clinical translation.</p>","PeriodicalId":14084,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Nanomedicine","volume":"20 ","pages":"12041-12056"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12499593/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145244453","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Targeting Multiple Pathophysiological Axes in COPD: Nanomaterial Advances.","authors":"Qianyue Zhang, Shuanglan Xu, Chunyan Yang, Xiaolan Wang, Ting Liu, Xinting Zhang, Chongchang Qu, Jiawang Wu, Jiao Yang, Xiqian Xing","doi":"10.2147/IJN.S542725","DOIUrl":"10.2147/IJN.S542725","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), a leading global cause of mortality and morbidity, imposes substantial socioeconomic burdens due to its progressive nature and limited therapeutic efficacy. Current strategies face dual challenges: suboptimal pulmonary bioavailability of pharmacologic agents and systemic toxicity from non-targeted drug distribution. To address these limitations, this review establishes a mechanistic framework through the first systematic identification of COPD-specific nano-intervention targets, organized around four core pathophysiological axes: (1) dysregulated inflammatory cascades, (2) redox imbalance mechanisms, (3) protease-antiprotease homeostasis disruption, and (4) progressive airway remodeling. We critically evaluate respiratory-adaptive nanocarrier systems, including polymer nanoparticles (PLGA-PEG) with 6.5-fold enhanced Neutrophil targeting efficiency (*p* < 0.001) and lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) achieving >90% siRNA-mediated inflammatory gene suppression. Despite advancements, clinical translation remains hindered by technical limitations in nanoparticle engineering, chronic pulmonary biocompatibility risks (eg, silica nanoparticles elevating TGF-β by 1.8-fold, *p* < 0.05), and stringent regulatory requirements. Future research must prioritize intelligent stimulus-responsive platforms for inflammation-triggered drug release, multidisease targeting nanotechnologies, and AI-driven patient-specific formulations. By integrating mechanistic insights with translational strategies, this work provides a roadmap to advance nano-interventions toward precision therapeutics for COPD.</p>","PeriodicalId":14084,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Nanomedicine","volume":"20 ","pages":"11989-12007"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12497656/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145244462","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Construction of Baicalein-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles for <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>-Induced Lung Infection Remission.","authors":"Jizhao Wang, Rui Zhu, Kaibo Yang, Zitong Lei, Xing Zhang, Yuchen Sun, Xiaozhi Zhang","doi":"10.2147/IJN.S534294","DOIUrl":"10.2147/IJN.S534294","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Purpose: </strong>In this study, we constructed baicalein (a traditional Chinese medicine)-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (a drug-delivery system) with great biocompatibility for the remission of <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>-induced lung infection.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>The nanoparticles were prepared via a one-step reaction. Baicalein-release rates were studied via ultraviolet absorption assays. Morphology was characterized using AFM and TEM. The antibacterial mechanism of the nanoparticles was studied through ONPG, crystal violet staining, and live/dead bacterial staining assays, anti-inflammatory performance investigated via ELISA and WB assays, and in vivo anti-lung-infection capacity studied via H&E staining and ELISA kits.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The average size of the nanoparticles was uniform (~200 nm), and the zeta potential was about 18.5 ± 0.3 mV. The encapsulation efficiency was about 40%. The release of baicalein was >80% under different temperatures and pH. Dry nanoparticles were also stable. The minimum inhibitory concentration against <i>S. aureus</i> was about 15 μg/mL. The maximum tolerable dose in vivo was 300 μg/kg. The nanoparticles exhibited outstanding anti-inflammatory and anti-lung-infection performance.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>The in vitro and in vivo results demonstrate that our drug-delivery system could be an efficient platform for the remission of bacterium-induced lung infection.</p>","PeriodicalId":14084,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Nanomedicine","volume":"20 ","pages":"12009-12018"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12497376/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145238616","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Computational Prediction of Tissue Iron Dynamics in Iron Deficiency Anemia Following Intravenous Ferric Carboxymaltose Therapy.","authors":"Kangna Cao, Xiaoqing Fan, C F Lee, Raymond S M Wong, Donald K L Chan, Xiaoyu Yan","doi":"10.2147/IJN.S534063","DOIUrl":"10.2147/IJN.S534063","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is a global public health concern. Intravenous iron therapy, particularly ferric carboxymaltose (FCM), is a cornerstone therapy for IDA treatment. However, its application is hindered by limited understanding of long-term tissue iron distribution post-therapy and the lack of practical clinical methods to assess tissue iron. This study aims to investigate the tissue iron distribution following FCM and develop a computational model for predicting tissue iron levels in both rats and humans.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Using an IDA model in rats, we evaluated tissue distribution of iron and dynamic changes of serum iron biomarkers over time after a single dose of FCM. Then we developed a mathematical model to characterize tissue-specific iron kinetics. The model was further scaled to humans and validated using clinical data.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The computational model accurately captured tissue-specific iron distribution and serum ferritin dynamics in IDA rats. Among the analyzed tissues, the liver and spleen exhibited the highest tissue-to-plasma partition coefficient (KP_t) values, estimated at 21.7 and 25.9, respectively. The bone marrow (BM) also demonstrated a notable KP_t value of 21.6, reflecting the prioritization of iron delivery to BM for erythropoiesis in IDA. Notably, the heart displayed a relatively high KP_t value of 18, underscoring its limited capacity to clear excess iron. Our model accurately predicted serum iron profiles in IDA patients. Correlation analysis revealed a strong correlation between model-predicted iron levels in the liver and spleen and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-derived relaxation time parameters (<i>P</i> < 0.001), highlighting the model's predictive capability for tissue iron levels in humans.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>This study provides critical insights into the long-term tissue distribution of iron following single dose of FCM and highlights the clinical potential of the computational approach to predict tissue iron content, optimize dosing strategies, and ultimately enhance the safety and efficacy of iron therapy.</p>","PeriodicalId":14084,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Nanomedicine","volume":"20 ","pages":"12019-12039"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12497385/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145238585","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Silicon-Based Nanomaterials in Chronic Wound Healing: Mechanisms, Therapeutic Applications, and Clinical Prospects.","authors":"Xuan Zhao, Zhikai Xu, Dongfang Wang, Tonghan Li, Zhanfei Li, Xiangjun Bai, Hao Zhu, Yukun Liu, Yuchang Wang","doi":"10.2147/IJN.S528531","DOIUrl":"10.2147/IJN.S528531","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Silicon-based nanosystems are emerging as promising nanotherapeutic platforms in the biomedical field, particularly for the treatment of chronic wounds. These materials possess several advantageous features. They offer excellent drug-loading capacity, controlled and stimuli-responsive drug release, and highly customizable structures and functions. These characteristics make them well-suited for personalized therapeutic approaches.This review provides a comprehensive summary of recent advances in the application of silicon-based nanosystems in wound healing. It highlights their mechanisms of action and discusses future development directions. We begin by outlining the clinical significance and complex pathophysiological characteristics of chronic wounds. A detailed classification of silicon-based nanomaterials is then provided, including mesoporous silica nanoparticles and silicon-based composites. The review emphasizes their key roles in modulating inflammation, reducing oxidative stress, and promoting angiogenesis and tissue regeneration. In addition, we summarize recent findings from in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as updates from relevant clinical research. The biocompatibility and safety profiles of these systems are also comprehensively evaluated. Future research should focus on optimizing the synthesis of these materials and improving their long-term biosafety. Efforts should also aim to integrate multifunctional therapeutic strategies to enhance efficacy and translational potential. Moreover, large-scale, rigorously designed clinical trials are urgently needed. These studies will help build robust clinical evidence and support the practical application of silicon-based nanosystems in advanced wound care. In conclusion, silicon-based nanosystems represent a next-generation approach for wound therapy. However, further interdisciplinary research is essential to fully realize their clinical value.</p>","PeriodicalId":14084,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Nanomedicine","volume":"20 ","pages":"11959-11988"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12495977/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145232442","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Extracellular Vesicles in Peripheral Nerve Regeneration: From Biology to Therapeutic Engineering.","authors":"Shaoyan Shi, Xingxing Yu, Xuehai Ou, Changming Zheng, Fei Xie, Yansheng Huang","doi":"10.2147/IJN.S548357","DOIUrl":"10.2147/IJN.S548357","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) pose a significant clinical challenge, often resulting in irreversible functional deficits due to limited spontaneous regeneration. While current therapeutic approaches offer partial solutions, their efficacy remains suboptimal. In recent years, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as bioactive carriers capable of orchestrating complex regenerative processes without the risks associated with live-cell transplantation. Derived from sources, EVs deliver a repertoire of functional cargos that modulate immune responses, promote axonal regrowth, enhance remyelination, and stimulate angiogenesis. Furthermore, bioengineering strategies enable EVs to be loaded with therapeutic molecules, surface-modified for targeted delivery, and incorporated into stimuli-responsive scaffolds for controlled release. When integrated with biomaterials, EVs demonstrate synergistic effects that enhance spatial guidance, immune modulation, and neurovascular remodeling in preclinical models. However, significant challenges remain, including large-scale EV production, standardization of isolation methods, and meeting regulatory requirements for clinical translation. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the biological roles of native and engineered EVs in peripheral nerve regeneration, highlights advances in EV-functionalized scaffolds, and discusses translational challenges and future directions for clinical implementation.</p>","PeriodicalId":14084,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Nanomedicine","volume":"20 ","pages":"11941-11957"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12484116/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145212578","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Recent Trends in Biomedical Applications of Cu₂MX₄-Based Nanocomposites: An Updated Review.","authors":"Lekshmi Gangadhar, Siva Sankar Sana, Vijayalaxmi Mishra, Raja Venkatesan, Seong-Cheol Kim, Moawia M Al-Tabakha","doi":"10.2147/IJN.S548959","DOIUrl":"10.2147/IJN.S548959","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Recent advancements in Cu₂MX₄ (CMX)-based nanocomposites have garnered significant attention in the biomedical field due to their exceptional structural, optical, electrical, and catalytic properties. In this review, recent developments regarding the synthesis, properties, and applications of CMX nanostructures in biomedicine, along with their high versatility and functionality, are discussed in detail. The various synthesis techniques, such as hydrothermal, solvothermal, and chemical vapour deposition methods and their influence on the properties of nanomaterials for therapeutic and diagnostic applications are also discussed. CMX-based nanocomposites cover highly important biomedical applications, including drug delivery, photothermal and photodynamic therapies, bioimaging, and antimicrobial activity. For the applications in targeted and controlled drug delivery, CMX, therefore, provides an efficient pathway to improve therapeutic efficiency while reducing adverse effects. The high photothermal conversion efficiency also makes this material beneficial for cancer therapies. The inherent fluorescence and magnetic properties of these agents may be beneficial in advanced bioimaging techniques. The good antimicrobial efficacy of CMX materials opens new avenues for combating microbial resistance. Mechanistic insights into cellular interactions, oxidative stress induction, and catalytic activities help provide a deeper understanding of the functions of these nanostructures in biological systems. Along with many future awaiting applications, toxicity, scalability, physico-stability, and regulatory issues are critical hurdles that need to be addressed for clinical translation to occur with CMX-based nanocomposite. The future aspects of enhancing the synthesis route, biocompatibility, and leveraging interdisciplinary approaches to optimize these materials for biomedical applications are also discussed. The unique multifunctionality of Cu₂MX₄ positions it as a next-generation nanomaterial, and this review provides timely insights to accelerate its translation from laboratory research to real-world biomedical applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":14084,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Nanomedicine","volume":"20 ","pages":"11895-11939"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12482964/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145206373","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}