Forensic science international最新文献

{"title":"Enhancing bloodstain visibility on dark surfaces: Specificity and sensitivity of infrared photography for detecting bloodstains","authors":"Charlotte Ellis ,&nbsp;Andrew Davidson ,&nbsp;Jennifer Lewis ,&nbsp;Aaron Opoku Amankwaa","doi":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112563","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112563","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Low power microscopy and additional light sources are the standard tools used for searching items for blood in forensic casework. This process can be time-consuming and can yield limited information when examining dark surfaces due to poor contrast between bloodstains and the surface. This research investigated the specificity and sensitivity of Infrared (IR) photography in visualising various bloodstains on multiple dark surfaces using the Canon XA60 IR Camcorder. The specificity studies involved the comparison of the IR visualisation of neat blood and common substances found in casework (such as, mud, rust, lipstick, tomato sauce, marker pen, semen, urine, and saliva). To examine the sensitivity of the technique, dilutions of blood and water were created to determine the detection limit of the IR Camcorder. Among the substances tested, mud and rust were found to be absorbers of IR and appeared similar to blood, however they were readily discriminated in white light from bloodstains. In comparison to other body fluids, blood was the only sample that absorbed IR. Semen, urine and saliva reflected the IR. The detection limit of IR visualisation was up to 1:10 dilutions and occasionally 1:12 dilutions were visualised, but this was not consistent. Further studies revealed that exposure to IR does not influence or cause DNA degradation. In conclusion, this study found IR photography to be an efficient tool for blood searching as well as post-search enhancement and documentation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12341,"journal":{"name":"Forensic science international","volume":"375 ","pages":"Article 112563"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-07-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144596811","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mechanical asphyxia by hanging: A look back in search for evidence","authors":"Alberto Blandino ,&nbsp;Luca Pietro Ernesto Sbrissa ,&nbsp;Nicola Galante ,&nbsp;Giulia Pianese ,&nbsp;Emma Flutti ,&nbsp;Guido Vittorio Travaini","doi":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112561","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112561","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The lack of pathognomonic findings to diagnose death by hanging is a well-known problem in forensic practice. This review examines the significance of signs that have been proposed over time as useful in forensic diagnosis, reporting the frequency of occurrence in the various published case histories. The analysis covered both internal and external signs, followed by an overview of potentially useful laboratory investigations. There is great variability in the frequency of occurrence of signs considered useful in forensic diagnosis. In addition, some of the signs that were considered historically valid must now be deemed not to be supported by sufficient scientific evidence as to their actual usefulness. There is a need for new case studies with overlapping methodologies and observed variables to enable effective and further comparisons.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12341,"journal":{"name":"Forensic science international","volume":"375 ","pages":"Article 112561"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-07-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144581411","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Corrigendum to “Automated sex and age estimation from orthopantomograms using deep learning: A comparison with human predictions” [Forensic Sci. Intern., vol. 374 (2025) 112531]","authors":"Inseok Kim ,&nbsp;Sujin Yang ,&nbsp;Yiseul Choi ,&nbsp;Hyeokhyeon Kwon ,&nbsp;Changmin Lee ,&nbsp;Wonse Park","doi":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112556","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112556","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":12341,"journal":{"name":"Forensic science international","volume":"376 ","pages":"Article 112556"},"PeriodicalIF":2.5,"publicationDate":"2025-07-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144564729","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Comparison of pre-mortem and post-mortem blood concentrations of analgesic and sedative drugs in intensive care patients","authors":"Ulrica Lennborn ,&nbsp;Anna Johansson ,&nbsp;Erik Lindgren ,&nbsp;Elisabet I. Nielsen ,&nbsp;Håkan Sandler ,&nbsp;Robert Kronstrand ,&nbsp;Johan Ahlner ,&nbsp;Fredrik C. Kugelberg ,&nbsp;Sten Rubertsson","doi":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112551","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112551","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Patients in the intensive care unit (ICU) often receive analgesic and sedative drugs. There is limited knowledge about the resulting drug concentrations in blood in the critically ill patient, and how these concentrations change after death. In this single-centre prospective study of deceased patients from a general ICU, the aim was to describe blood concentrations and post-mortem redistribution for ten common analgesic and sedative drugs.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We included 46 patients who died during intensive care. Blood samples were collected pre-mortem (before death), peri-mortem (within one hour after death) and post-mortem (through aortic arch sampling at the morgue or during clinical or forensic autopsy). Samples were analysed for clonidine, dexmedetomidine, fentanyl, ketamine, ketobemidone, morphine, midazolam, paracetamol, propofol and thiopental.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Post-mortem redistribution was significant for fentanyl, with a mean concentration increase from 3.1 ng/g to 5.2 ng/g (p = 0.002). There was no correlation between neither cumulative fentanyl dose nor post-mortem interval and post-mortem concentration changes. For the other drugs, the changes during the post-mortem interval were not significant. Median peri-mortem concentrations were 2.3–9 times higher than observed concentrations in a larger cohort of living ICU patients.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>In conclusion, of the investigated drugs, only fentanyl showed a predominant positive post-mortem redistribution, whereas for the other drugs, post-mortem changes were unpredictable. We also conclude that concentrations from the living may not be comparable to those obtained even shortly after death. These concentration differences, as well as the observed post-mortem changes, can influence toxicological interpretation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12341,"journal":{"name":"Forensic science international","volume":"375 ","pages":"Article 112551"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-07-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144588796","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"(Re-)positionning forensic research & development for increased impact in gunshot residue examination","authors":"Céline Weyermann ,&nbsp;Virginie Redouté Minzière ,&nbsp;Thomas Tilborg ,&nbsp;Kal Chana ,&nbsp;Hervé Ménard ,&nbsp;Bart Nys ,&nbsp;Ruediger Schumacher ,&nbsp;Sébastien Charles","doi":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112560","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112560","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Despite its relatively high cost and time-consuming analysis, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) has been the “gold standard” technique for analysing inorganic gunshot residue (GSR) particles for more than 40 years. Conversely, research has largely focused on developing new techniques and innovations that have struggled to gain acceptance in routine GSR examination.This study aims to explore the persistent gap perceived between research and practice in the field of GSR, specifically why research continues to propose novel instrumental analyses that are not adopted in practice. This question was examined through a comprehensive literature review, a survey of GSR examination, and a round table organised at the annual meeting of the European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI) Expert Working Group (EWG) Firearms / GSR in Brussels in 2023.The literature review highlighted that publications on GSR have steadily increased over the past 20 years, followed by a slight decrease after 2020 to reach approximately 40 publications in 2022. In that year, 42 % of the relevant publications focused on the development of novel methods, while 26 % addressed issues related to GSR persistence, prevalence, and interpretation.Survey responses from 45 GSR experts confirmed that residues are mainly collected from hands with carbon stubs and analysed by SEM-EDS. Among respondents, 90 % work in accredited laboratories, and 95 % have little time for research beyond routine duties. While practical innovations have largely concentrated on the optimisation of current approaches, experts strongly support collecting additional forensic data on persistence, prevalence, and secondary transfer. However, such data often suffer from a lack of harmonisation and are only indirectly useful for the interpretation, which is gradually shifting from source to activity inferences.Both practitioners and academics advocate for increased collaboration to define and conduct more impactful GSR research. However, addressing the identified barriers may require systemic changes that go beyond simply increasing resources.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12341,"journal":{"name":"Forensic science international","volume":"375 ","pages":"Article 112560"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144631451","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Chemsex-related deaths in the United Kingdom (2017–2022): A review of the Forensic Toxicology data","authors":"Mark Tyler,&nbsp;Lindsey Ward,&nbsp;Susan Grosse","doi":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112553","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112553","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The colloquial term “chemsex” (or “party and play”) has appeared within the media and scientific literature within the past decade or so. It has been described as “sex, sometimes long sessions with multiple partners, under the influence of psychoactive drugs (particularly mephedrone, GHB, GBL and crystal meth). Subjects are reported to be mostly, but not exclusively, men who have sex with men (MSM).</div><div>The study presents toxicology data from 21 deaths in the United Kingdom (between 2017 and 2022) considered within the “chemsex” scenario.</div></div><div><h3>Method</h3><div>Each case (n = 21) involved the anecdotal report of using drugs with sexual activity. The age of the decedents was 19–62 years (median age = 42). 17 males died after pre-arranged meetings with other males. 2 males died after apparently engaging in sex acts alone. 1 male died after meeting a female. 1 female died after meeting a male. Volatile substance abuse and physical restraints were mentioned in some cases (“poppers”, ethyl chloride).</div><div>Post-mortem samples were analysed in 19 cases. In 2 cases, the subject was found alive, but died later. Ante-mortem blood samples were analysed in these 2 cases.</div><div>Analysis was carried out for alcohol, drugs of abuse, medicines and a range of sedative substances using conventional chromatographic methods including Gas Chromatography with Flame Ionisation Detector (GC-FID), Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Gas Chromatography with Tandem Mass Spectrometry (GCMS/ MS), Liquid Chromatography with Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and Liquid Chromatography with High Resolution Accurate Mass Spectrometry (LCHRAM).</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Methamphetamine (methylamphetamine, MA, n = 16) and GHB (n = 14) were the most common drugs detected. The concentration range for MA was 0.025–13 mg/L, and for GHB was 22 to &gt; 800 mg/L in blood.</div><div>1 case contained mephedrone (0.19 mg/L).</div><div>Other drugs detected included: sildenafil/tadalafil (n = 9); cocaine/benzoylecgonine (n = 7); alcohol (n = 4); ketamine (n = 4); cannabis (n = 3); diazepam (n = 1); quetiapine (n = 1); diphenhydramine (n = 1).</div><div>Poly drug use was common. The most common combination was MA and GHB (n = 11).</div><div>The cause of death was predominantly given as Drug toxicity/Drug-related death. Ischaemic heart disease/coronary atherosclerosis was listed as an additional complication in some cases.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Methamphetamine and GHB were the most common drugs observed. Poly-drug use is common in deaths associated with chemsex. Little use of mephedrone was found. Volatile use/asphyxia may be a significant factor. We believe this is the first single study providing toxicology data in a series of chemsex-related deaths in the UK.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12341,"journal":{"name":"Forensic science international","volume":"375 ","pages":"Article 112553"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144596813","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A forensic toolkit for the “cheese skipper”: Larval identification and thermal requirements of the immature stages of Piophila casei (L.) (Diptera: Piophilidae)","authors":"Daniel Martín-Vega ,&nbsp;María Luisa Beringola ,&nbsp;Aarón Pedreño","doi":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112559","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112559","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The ‘cheese skipper’, <em>Piophila casei</em> (L.) (Diptera: Piophilidae), is a cosmopolitan and synanthropic species that frequently colonises cadavers in advanced stages of decomposition. Despite its potential as a forensic indicator, the use of <em>P. casei</em> in casework is hampered by (i) some contradictory descriptions of its larval morphology, which limit the reliability of the identification of specimens collected at the forensic scene, and (ii) the lack of reference data and temperature-dependent models, which hinders the accuracy of minimum postmortem interval (_minPMI) estimates based on the developmental rates of this species. Here we determine and illustrate a series of diagnostic morphological characters that allow for the unequivocal identification of <em>P. casei</em> larval specimens. The shape and degree of sclerotization of the larval cephalopharyngeal skeleton and the number and arrangement of the rows of spines of the ventral creeping welts are particularly useful allowing not only for species identification, but also for larval instar determination. In addition, we analyse the influence of temperature on the development of the different immature stages of <em>P. casei</em>, providing an isomorphen diagram and determining the thermal requirements (lower developmental threshold and thermal summation constant) for five developmental events, enabling accurate _minPMI estimates in forensic casework. In addition, within the intra-puparial period, we determine a series of age-specific morphological markers that are easily observable through the translucent puparium of <em>P. casei</em>, thus increasing the accuracy of _minPMI estimates and avoiding the potential risk of sample damaging during puparium dissection when using puparial samples.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12341,"journal":{"name":"Forensic science international","volume":"374 ","pages":"Article 112559"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144535698","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Methodological requirements to publish results obtained using high-risk forensic methods in FSI","authors":"Didier Meuwly","doi":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112557","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112557","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This editorial provides guidance on what is required for publication in Forensic Science International, particularly regarding methods for detecting deception. The European Union's Artificial Intelligence Act (EU-AI act) labels these methods as high-risk. The editorial discusses the importance of addressing ethical concerns and ensuring that the outcomes of such research do not compromise fundamental rights or the integrity of science. The editorial highlights that submissions analyzing biometric features using machine learning algorithms have been rejected, but there is no fundamental reason for this to always be the case. To assist authors in successfully developing and publishing their work on high-risk methods, the editorial provides guidance on what is required for publication in Forensic Science International, including experimental setup, scientific methodology and ethical aspects. The EU-AI Act emphasizes the need to consider both benefits and potential risks associated with using high-risk methods in research. By addressing these ethical concerns, we can ensure that the outcomes are beneficial and do not compromise human rights or science integrity. The editorial encourages authors to address these issues and provides references for further information on related topics. In summary, this editorial serves as a guide for researchers aiming to publish their work on high-risk methods in Forensic Science International, highlighting the importance of addressing ethical concerns and ensuring that research outcomes are beneficial and do not compromise fundamental rights or the integrity of science.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12341,"journal":{"name":"Forensic science international","volume":"376 ","pages":"Article 112557"},"PeriodicalIF":2.5,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144564730","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A ten-year analysis of drug-facilitated crimes: Prevalence and characteristics at a tertiary hospital victim protection center","authors":"Sarah Anegg ,&nbsp;Daniela Doerfler ,&nbsp;Wolfgang Bicker ,&nbsp;Serena Paola Gonzalez Barias ,&nbsp;Florian Heinzl ,&nbsp;Jakob Schwazer ,&nbsp;Sabine Eder ,&nbsp;Ksenia Krögler-Halpern ,&nbsp;Christine Sam ,&nbsp;Karin Windsperger","doi":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112552","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112552","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Drug-Facilitated Crimes (DFCs) involve criminal offenses where the victim's intoxicated state plays a central role. The substances used, often central nervous system depressants, are challenging to detect, leading to a high rate of undiagnosed cases. As a result, DFCs remain a form of violence that is weakly characterized. This cross-sectional study analyzed 1104 violence-related cases presented to the Children and Victim Protection Center (CAVPC) at a tertiary hospital. Of these, 12.2 % were suspected to be DFCs between 2014 and 2019, while 38.5 % were suspected to be DFCs between 2020 and 2023 (p &lt; 0.001). This suggests a 544 % increase in the volume of DFC-related cases between the two time periods. Victims were predominantly female (86.4 %) and aged 20–30 years, though a concurrent rise in male victims, from 3.5 % in 2014–2019–15.1 % in 2020–2023 was also observed (p = 0.01). Perpetrators were primarily male (96.2 %), acted alone, and were known to the victim in 51.9 % of the cases. The crimes, which predominantly occurred in private settings between 2014 and 2019, increasingly took place in public spaces between 2020 and 2023 (p = 0.01), where alcohol was present, and peaked on weekends (especially Saturdays) and during late-night and early-morning hours. Most victims exhibited signs of amnesia (91.8 %) and physical injuries (58.4 %). Alarmingly, only 38.5 % of victims sought help within 12 h, significantly reducing the chances of detecting certain substances. Cannabinoids, cocaine, diphenhydramine, paracetamol and lidocaine were the most commonly identified substances in blood and urine. These findings highlight the urgent need for action, including implementing preventive measures, raising awareness, and reducing stigma – an approach that could help address the growing global public health concern of DFCs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12341,"journal":{"name":"Forensic science international","volume":"374 ","pages":"Article 112552"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-06-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144523896","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Advances in nanotechnology for illicit drug detection: A systematic literature review using the PRISMA framework","authors":"Binu Varghese ,&nbsp;Lalit Prasad","doi":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112550","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112550","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Nanotechnology has revolutionized illicit drug detection in forensic science by enhancing the sensitivity, specificity, and portability of analytical methods. This systematic review, guided by the PRISMA 2020 framework, evaluated recent advancements in nanotechnology for the detection of substances (e.g., cocaine, heroin, and fentanyl). We analyzed 110 studies conducted from 2015 to 2025, focusing on innovations, such as Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) with noble metal nanoparticles and electrochemical sensors using graphene and carbon nanotubes. These technologies enable trace-level detection in complex matrices with limits as low as, thereby supporting rapid, on-site forensic analysis. Smart nanomaterials, including molecularly imprinted polymers, have further improved selectivity. However, challenges remain in terms of standardization, stability, and scalability. This review highlights a global research surge led by China and the US, and identifies gaps in integrating nano-enabled tools into routine forensic workflows. Future advancements should prioritize standardized protocols, environmental impact assessments, and portable device development to enhance forensic investigations. This study underscores the transformative potential of nanotechnology in combating drug-related crimes and offers precise and efficient solutions for modern forensic science.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12341,"journal":{"name":"Forensic science international","volume":"374 ","pages":"Article 112550"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-06-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144523995","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}