Folia morphologica最新文献

{"title":"Imaging the morphological variability of the anterolateral ligament - is it possible? Review of the available literature.","authors":"Izabela Wasiak, Izabella Kaczmarczyk, Marta Pośnik, Nicol Zielinska, Janusz Moryś, Richard S Tubbs, Łukasz Olewnik, Ilona Klejbor","doi":"10.5603/fm.102603","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5603/fm.102603","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The existence of the anterolateral ligament (ALL) has been questioned. It has recently attracted attention because of increased internal rotation after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction, which could relate to simultaneous anterolateral ligament rupture. The current literature reports a highly variable anatomy of this ligament, and the first classification system for it was published recently. One goal of this review is to compare the abilities of magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography to detect the exact course of the anterolateral ligament, its proximal and distal attachments being depicted differently by different researchers. The main goal is to establish if all morphological types of the ALL can be identified and distinguished using noninvasive methods.</p>","PeriodicalId":12251,"journal":{"name":"Folia morphologica","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2026-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146178672","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The anatomy of the posterior cerebral artery - a detailed analysis.","authors":"Malwina Błaszczyk, Bartłomiej Stachera, Jakub Gliwa, Marek Kachnic, Michał Bonczar, Maciej Lis, Wadim Wojciechowski, Mateusz Koziej, Jerzy Mituś, Jerzy A Walocha","doi":"10.5603/fm.110766","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5603/fm.110766","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>The aim of this study was to comprehensively characterize posterior cerebral artery (PCA) anatomy by assessing the prevalence of adult, transitional, and fetal PCA configurations, as well as evaluating side- and sex-related differences and age-related correlations.</p><p><strong>Materials and methods: </strong>Computed tomography angiography (CTA) examinations of the head and neck from 100 consecutive patients were evaluated.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The final study group included 176 sides. In all analyzed cases, the PCA was present and originated from the basilar artery (BA). Posterior communicating artery (PCoA) was observed in 130 cases (73.9%). In the remaining 46 cases (26.1%), the PCoA was aplastic. A duplicated PCoA was identified in five cases (2.8%). The median diameter of the PCA at its origin was 3.20 mm [lower quartile (LQ) = 2.90; upper quartile (UQ) = 3.47], while its median cross-sectional area was 6.12 mm² (LQ = 5.10; UQ = 7.05). The most common variation of the PCA, according to the classification by Nas et al., was the adult type (n = 103; 82.4%). The fetal and transitional types occurred in 17 (13.6%) and 5 (4.0%) cases, respectively.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The present study emphasizes that variability of the PCA and PCoA is the rule rather than the exception and should be regarded as a clinically meaningful feature of cerebral circulation. The high prevalence of incomplete or atypical posterior circle configurations highlights the need for careful, individualized interpretation of neuroimaging, particularly in the context of ischemic stroke mechanisms, collateral capacity, and treatment planning. Demographic influences on vascular morphology further support the importance of considering patient-specific factors rather than relying on simplified anatomical models. Overall, consistent definitions and population-based data are essential for translating anatomical knowledge of the posterior circulation into reliable clinical and radiological practice.</p>","PeriodicalId":12251,"journal":{"name":"Folia morphologica","volume":"85 ","pages":"e01726030"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147510925","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The role of mandibular morphological markers in determining sex and age: anatomical and anthropometric analysis.","authors":"Adem Tokpınar, Yarenkür Alkan","doi":"10.5603/fm.104230","DOIUrl":"10.5603/fm.104230","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Sex estimation is a very important part of anthropological and forensic research. After the pelvic skeleton, the skull is the easiest place to distinguish sex. The morphological characteristics of the mandible, which is the largest and strongest bone in the skull, play an important role in sex estimation because it varies according to age, sex and race.</p><p><strong>Materials and methods: </strong>In our study, mandibular length (ML), symphysis height (SH), bimental width (BMW), bicondylar width (BCW), bigonial width (BGW), ramus height (RH) and ramus width (RW) were morphologically examined on 130 dry mandibular bones of which age and sex were estimated.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Bigonial width, a key indicator of mandibular width, also showed significant differences between the sexes in all age groups (p < 0.05), with males having wider mandibles. Other significant differences were observed for bimental width in the 20-25, 31-35 and 51-55 age groups, and for bicondylar width in the 20-25 and 31-35 age groups. On the other hand, ramus width showed no statistically significant differences between males and females in any age group, suggesting a more uniform characteristic between the sexes.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>In our study, it can be seen that there are significant sex differences in the various dimensions of the mandible, and that males in general have larger dimensions compared to females. In this context, the morphological findings of our study provide an accurate estimation of the age and sex of the individual.</p>","PeriodicalId":12251,"journal":{"name":"Folia morphologica","volume":" ","pages":"e01726032"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144274584","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Neuroprotective effects of cimifugin against focal cerebral ischaemic injury through inhibition of oxidative stress, neuronal apoptosis, and iNOS/COX-2 signalling.","authors":"Yongbin Liao, Ni Wang","doi":"10.5603/fm.106197","DOIUrl":"10.5603/fm.106197","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Cerebral ischaemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is a leading cause of long-term neurological disability and mortality, primarily due to oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, blood-brain barrier disruption, and neuronal apoptosis. Despite extensive therapeutic research, the successful clinical translation of neuroprotective agents remains limited. This study aimed to evaluate the neuroprotective potential of cimifugin - a flavonoid with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties - in a rat model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO).</p><p><strong>Materials and methods: </strong>Rats were subjected to MCAO and treated with cimifugin at doses of 10, 20, and 30 mg/kg. Behavioural assessment was performed using the neurological deficit score and Morris water maze test. Brain infarct volume was determined by 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining. Histological and biochemical analyses were conducted to assess cerebral oedema, oxidative stress markers, eg., malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and reduced glutathione (GSH), inflammatory cytokines eg., tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6), apoptotic cell death, and the expression ofinducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2).</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Cimifugin significantly improved neurological outcomes in a dose-dependent manner, as indicated by reduced neurological deficit scores and enhanced cognitive performance in the Morris water maze test. TTC staining revealed a marked reduction in infarct volume, particularly at 30 mg/kg. Cimifugin treatment also attenuated cerebral oedema and markedly decreased neuronal apoptosis. Furthermore, it reduced MDA levels while enhancing SOD and GSH activities, indicating robust antioxidative effects. The expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), as well as iNOS and COX-2, was significantly downregulated.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Cimifugin exerts neuroprotective effects against cerebral I/R injury through multiple mechanisms, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic pathways. These findings highlight cimifugin as a promising, low-toxicity, plant-derived candidate for managing ischaemic stroke and related cerebrovascular diseases.</p>","PeriodicalId":12251,"journal":{"name":"Folia morphologica","volume":" ","pages":"e01726033"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144309791","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Historical corrosion casts of the bony labyrinth and related intratemporal structures manufactured from Wood's metal.","authors":"Janusz Skrzat, Magdalena Kozerska, Wojciech Ryniewicz, Jerzy Walocha","doi":"10.5603/fm.108720","DOIUrl":"10.5603/fm.108720","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The study examines corrosion casts of intratemporal structures made from Wood's metal by Polish anatomist prof. Adam Bochenek (1875-1913). A total of four specimens belong to the historical collection housed in the Anatomical Museum of the Jagiellonian University, Medical College in Cracow, Poland. The metallic casts clearly demonstrate tiny neurovascular channels and other anatomical features within the petrous part of the temporal bone, offering valuable insights into their true-to-scale three-dimensional morphology. The following structures of the ear were identified: the bony labyrinth, the internal acoustic meatus (IAM), the facial canal (FC), the semicanal for the tensor tympani (STT), the semicanal for the auditory tube (SAT), the cochlear aqueduct (CA), the vestibular aqueduct (VA), the posterior ampullary nerve (PAN), the conduits for the cochlear and vestibular nerves, the caroticotympanic canaliculus (CCA), and the inferior tympanic canaliculus (ITC). Furthermore, the carotid canal (CC), the jugular fossa (JF) and the air cells of the temporal bone were also visible on the metallic casts. Our findings highlight the value of the corrosion cast techniques used in the past for advancing otological research and educational purposes. Remarkably, these casts closely resemble modern 3D-printed replicas derived from high-resolution tomography, highlighting the enduring value of early anatomical casting methods.</p>","PeriodicalId":12251,"journal":{"name":"Folia morphologica","volume":"85 ","pages":"e01726043"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147590807","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ramification of the dorsal clitoral nerve along its course on the human clitoris.","authors":"Michael Wolf-Vollenbröker, Lea Piermaier, Timm J Filler, Dan Mon O'Dey","doi":"10.5603/fm.107254","DOIUrl":"10.5603/fm.107254","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>The detailed anatomy of the human bulboclitoral organ remains, despite recent efforts of morphological disciplines, a largely unstudied area. In particular, to understand the functional role of the clitoris it requires detailed anatomical studies of the nervous structures supplying the organ, especially the dorsal clitoral nerve. Although there are rough descriptions of this nerve, there is little reliable information about its exact ramification and where and how many branches leave or enter the main trunk. This knowledge is essential in this era of highly specialized microsurgery and will help to understand clitoral physiology and to design novel surgical techniques to restore clitoral function.</p><p><strong>Materials and methods: </strong>We examined n = 9 human clitoris specimens from fresh body donors (age range: 64-90 years). These were harvested in an unfixed state, afterwards formaldehyde-fixed, and made transparent as macroscopic specimens using modified Sihler staining. The course and ramification of the stained nerve fascicles could be determined during diaphanoscopic microdissection with the help of a macroscope.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>As result of the study, two ramification hotspots were determined. The first hotspot shows an average of 1.8 fascicles separate within the clitoral suspensory ligament, with 67% belonging to the ascending and 33% to the prepubic segment of the dorsal clitoral nerve. More distally and based on the information as to whether the glans and prepuce are innervated by medial or lateral fascicles, a classification (types I-IV) of the ramification possibilities as a second hotspot has been established. Furthermore, it has been found that clitoral innervation is not bilaterally symmetrical and that there is a nerve-free area ventral to the glans.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>In addition to a general understanding of the course of the dorsal clitoral nerve, the knowledge gained also serves as a basis for the development of new and the improvement of established surgical techniques for the reconstruction of clitoral function after pathological changes or defective interventions (e.g., female genital mutilation/cutting).</p>","PeriodicalId":12251,"journal":{"name":"Folia morphologica","volume":"85 ","pages":"e01726046"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147608478","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Morphological analysis of normal human lumbar dorsal root ganglion.","authors":"Marek Misiak, Michał Grzegorczyk, Bogdan Ciszek","doi":"10.5603/fm.110315","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5603/fm.110315","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>The dorsal root ganglion (DRG) contains the somata of primary sensory neurons. The structure of the DRG is important for understanding the mechanisms of several diseases (e.g., low back pain or sciatica) and the variability in the distribution of regional anesthesia. DRG is also highly sensitive to mechanical compression in radiculopathy. Neuromonitoring and neurostimulation technologies require appropriate electrode placement, which depends on the ganglion's structure. According to certain reports, biganglia occur relatively frequently in the lumbar nerves. This study aimed to investigate the normal morphological features and variations of the human lumbar DRG.</p><p><strong>Materials and methods: </strong>Microanatomic dissections of the lumbar nerves were performed in 10 human cadavers fixed in 10% formalin (6 males and 4 females, aged 69-97 years). A total of 100 DRGs were analyzed morphologically.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Bilateral dissection of the DRG (L1-L5) revealed three types of structures: single ganglion, biganglion, and triganglion. Monoganglion was found most often at the levels of L1 and L2, while polyganglia, such as biganglion or triganglion, may be found at L2, L3, L4, or L5. Distinct layers of connective tissue separate independent ganglion components. In cases of transitional morphology, the division of ganglion components was partial.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The presence of biganglion or triganglion might affect the quality of electrical stimulation of the DRG. The connective tissue between the ganglion components of a polyganglion might influence the spread of impulses. A classification of DRG morphology is proposed. Further research should clarify the distribution of dermatomal innervation of the ganglion components.</p>","PeriodicalId":12251,"journal":{"name":"Folia morphologica","volume":"85 ","pages":"e01726067"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147766754","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Morphological characteristics of developmental anomalies of the thyroid gland: a prospective single-center cohort study.","authors":"Iryna Samec, Marek Samec, Gabriela Hešková, Ľubomír Straka, Martin Janík, Desanka Výbohová","doi":"10.5603/fm.102943","DOIUrl":"10.5603/fm.102943","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Thyroid diverticulum originates between the first and second pharyngeal pouches, and descends via the thyroglossal duct to the level of CV to TI vertebra. By the 6th week of gestation the thyroglossal duct starts to obliterate. Failure in its obliteration causes differentiation of the distal part into the pyramidal lobe (PL), while the cranial portion may alter into a fibromuscular remnant - levator glandulae thyreoideae (LGT).</p><p><strong>Materials and methods: </strong>Morphological characteristics of PL and LGT were prospectively observed in 86 cadavers (66 male and 20 female).</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>PL was observed in 59.3%, occurring more frequently in male cadavers (60.61%) compared to female cadavers (55%). PL was more frequent on the left side (50.98%) than on the right side (39.22%). Junctional PL was determined in 58.82%, isthmic PL in 27.45%, and lobar PL in 13.73%. The average height, width, and area of PL reached 23.81 mm, 13.13 mm, and 320.16 mm², respectively. The most frequent height-to-width ratio of PL was 1.3 : 1. LGT was observed in 47.67% of cadavers. LGT prevailed in male cadavers (48.48%) over female cadavers (45%). LGT occurred commonly on the left side (53.66%) than on the right side (31.71%). Macroscopic evaluation demonstrated prevalence of fibrous LGTs (65.85%). Hyopyramidal type of LGT was observed in 70.73% of cadavers.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Knowledge gained from this study is applicable in the surgical field to reduce the risk of intraoperative and postoperative complications in thyroid surgery.</p>","PeriodicalId":12251,"journal":{"name":"Folia morphologica","volume":" ","pages":"e01726063"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143500048","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Quantitative anatomy of the growing iliacus muscle in the human fetus: an anatomical, digital and statistical study.","authors":"Magdalena Grzonkowska, Michał Szpinda, Michał Kułakowski, Agnieszka Rogalska, Bartłomiej Hankiewicz, Karol Elster, Mariusz Baumgart","doi":"10.5603/fm.104994","DOIUrl":"10.5603/fm.104994","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>In the present study, we aimed to quantitatively evaluate the growth of the iliacus muscle in human fetuses.</p><p><strong>Materials and methods: </strong>Using anatomical dissection, digital-image analysis (NIS Elements AR 3.0), the volumetric hydrostatic method, and statistical analysis (Student's t-test, regression analysis), we assessed five direct morphometric parameters of the iliacus in 67 human fetuses of both sexes (31 males, 36 females) aged 16-28 weeks of gestation.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>No significant differences were found between males and females, or between the right and left sides, in the measured parameters of the growing iliacus. All linear dimensions (i.e., length and widths) increased according to a logarithmic model, whereas the projected surface area and volume followed a linear growth pattern.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The numerical data on the iliacus obtained in the present study may be useful in the assessment of both the skeletal system and fetal development, with potential relevance in surgery.</p>","PeriodicalId":12251,"journal":{"name":"Folia morphologica","volume":" ","pages":"e01726072"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144119264","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Complex accessory tendon anatomy of the pes anserinus: a unique combination of accessory tendons in a right knee.","authors":"Kamil Możdżeń, Grzegorz Fibiger, Agnieszka Murawska, Wiktoria Błachut, Jerzy A Walocha, Tomasz Kozioł, Wojciech Fibiger, Janusz Moryś, Ilona Klejbor, Przemysław Pękala","doi":"10.5603/fm.109707","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5603/fm.109707","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>The pes anserinus (PA) is a tendinous complex located on the anteromedial surface of the proximal tibia, formed by the conjoined insertions of the sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus muscles. It contributes to internal rotation and flexion of the tibia, providing stability to the medial knee compartment.</p><p><strong>Case report: </strong>During the routine dissection of a 75-year-old female cadaver, an unusual PA variant was found. On the right limb, four accessory tendons were identified: one accessory sartorius tendon (aSART), one accessory gracilis tendon (aGRT), and two accessory semitendinosus tendons (aSTT1 and aSTT2). Distally, the aSTT1 fused with the aGRT and subsequently joined the aSART, forming a single fascial band that inserted slightly inferior to the typical PA footprint. No corresponding variations were present on the contralateral side. The coexistence of accessory slips from all three PA muscles appears exceedingly rare.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>This case report presents a unique variant of PA, emphasizing the extent of its anatomic variability. Awareness and recognizing such variants of PA is crucial for surgeons, as this knowledge may help prevent the misidentification of tendons during medial knee procedures and tendon graft harvesting.</p>","PeriodicalId":12251,"journal":{"name":"Folia morphologica","volume":"85 ","pages":"e01726002"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146178657","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}