Earth system dynamics : ESD最新文献

{"title":"The link between European warm-temperature extremes and atmospheric persistence","authors":"Emma Holmberg, G. Messori, R. Caballero, D. Faranda","doi":"10.5194/esd-14-737-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-737-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. We investigate the link between warm-temperature extremes in Europe and the persistence of large-scale atmospheric-circulation patterns for both winter and summer, along with some possible physical mechanisms connecting the two. We assess atmospheric persistence, leveraging concepts from dynamical systems theory, and reconcile this approach with the more conventional meteorological views of persistence. We find that wintertime warm spells are partly associated with persistent zonal advection at the surface level but display no statistically significant persistence anomaly in the mid-troposphere. For summertime heatwaves, we find a weak yet significant link to anomalously persistent circulation patterns in the mid-troposphere, while there are few significant persistence anomalies of the surface circulation pattern. We further find no evidence of a strong warm-temperature advection signal. This suggests that other radiative and dynamical processes, for example sensible heating and adiabatic warming, as well as local effects, could play a more important role than large-scale warm-temperature advection for these events. We thus argue that persistent atmospheric configurations are not a necessary requirement for warm-temperature extremes and that the results depend to a considerable extent on region and tropospheric level.\u0000","PeriodicalId":92775,"journal":{"name":"Earth system dynamics : ESD","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-08-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44815406","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Combining local model calibration with the emergent constraint approach to reduce uncertainty in the tropical land carbon cycle feedback","authors":"N. Raoult, T. Jupp, B. Booth, P. Cox","doi":"10.5194/esd-14-723-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-723-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. The role of the land carbon cycle in climate change remains highly uncertain. A key source of the projection spread is related to the assumed response of photosynthesis to warming, especially in the tropics. The optimum temperature for photosynthesis determines whether warming positively or negatively impacts photosynthesis, thereby amplifying or suppressing CO2 fertilisation of photosynthesis under CO2-induced global warming. Land carbon cycle models have been extensively calibrated against local eddy flux measurements, but this has not previously been clearly translated into a reduced uncertainty in terms of how the tropical land carbon sink will respond to warming. Using a previous parameter perturbation ensemble carried out with version 3 of the Hadley Centre coupled climate–carbon cycle model (HadCM3C), we identify an emergent relationship between the optimal temperature for photosynthesis, which is especially relevant in tropical forests, and the projected amount of atmospheric CO2 at the end of the century. We combine this with a constraint on the optimum temperature for photosynthesis, derived from eddy covariance measurements using the adjoint of the Joint UK Land Environment Simulator (JULES) land surface model. Taken together, the emergent relationship from the coupled model and the constraint on the optimum temperature for photosynthesis define an emergent constraint on future atmospheric CO2 in the HadCM3C coupled climate–carbon cycle under a common emissions scenario (A1B). The emergent constraint sharpens the probability density of simulated CO2 change (2100–1900) and moves its peak to a lower value of 497 ± 91 compared to 607 ± 128 ppmv (parts per million by volume) when using the equal-weight prior. Although this result is likely to be model and scenario dependent, it demonstrates the potential of combining the large-scale emergent constraint approach with a parameter estimation using detailed local measurements.\u0000","PeriodicalId":92775,"journal":{"name":"Earth system dynamics : ESD","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-07-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48926565","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Past and future response of the North Atlantic warming hole to anthropogenic forcing","authors":"S. Qasmi","doi":"10.5194/esd-14-685-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-685-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Most of the North Atlantic ocean has warmed over the last decades, except a region located over the subpolar gyre, known as the North Atlantic “warming hole” (WH), where sea surface temperature (SST) has in contrast decreased. Previous assessments have attributed part of this cooling to the anthropogenic forcings (ANT) – aerosols (AER) and greenhouse gases (GHGs) – modulated by decadal internal variability. Here, I use an innovative and proven statistical method which combines climate models and observations to confirm the anthropogenic role in the cooling of the warming hole. The impact of the aerosols is an increase in SST which is opposed to the effect of GHGs. The latter largely contribute to the cooling of the warming hole over the historical period. Yet, large uncertainties remain in the quantification of the impact of each anthropogenic forcing. The statistical method is able to reduce the model uncertainty in SST over the warming hole, both over the historical and future periods with a decrease of 65 % in the short term and up to 50 % in the long term. A model evaluation validates the reliability of the obtained projections. In particular, the projections associated with a strong temperature increase over the warming hole are now excluded from the likely range obtained after applying the method.\u0000","PeriodicalId":92775,"journal":{"name":"Earth system dynamics : ESD","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-06-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45192356","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Rate-induced tipping in natural and human systems","authors":"P. Ritchie, H. Alkhayuon, P. Cox, Sebastian Wieczorek","doi":"10.5194/esd-14-669-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-669-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Over the last 2 decades, tipping points in open systems subject to changing external conditions have become a topic of a heated scientific debate\u0000due to the devastating consequences that they may have on natural and human systems. Tipping points are generally believed to be associated with a\u0000system bifurcation at some critical level of external conditions. When changing external conditions across a critical level, the\u0000system undergoes an abrupt transition to an alternative, and often less desirable, state. The main message of this paper is that the rate of\u0000change in external conditions is arguably of even greater relevance in the human-dominated Anthropocene but is rarely examined as a potential\u0000sole mechanism for tipping points. Thus, we address the related phenomenon of rate-induced tipping: an instability that occurs when external\u0000conditions vary faster, or sometimes slower, than some critical rate, usually without crossing any critical levels (bifurcations). First, we explain when to\u0000expect rate-induced tipping. Then, we use three illustrative and distinctive examples of differing complexity to highlight the universal and generic\u0000properties of rate-induced tipping in a range of natural and human systems.\u0000","PeriodicalId":92775,"journal":{"name":"Earth system dynamics : ESD","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-06-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43649935","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Continental heat storage: contributions from the ground, inland waters, and permafrost thawing","authors":"F. J. Cuesta-Valero, H. Beltrami, A. García‐García, G. Krinner, M. Langer, A. MacDougall, J. Nitzbon, Jian Peng, K. von Schuckmann, S. Seneviratne, W. Thiery, Inne Vanderkelen, Tonghua Wu","doi":"10.5194/esd-14-609-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-609-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Heat storage within the Earth system is a fundamental metric for understanding climate change. The current energy imbalance at the top of the atmosphere causes changes in energy storage within the ocean, the atmosphere, the cryosphere, and the continental landmasses. After the ocean, heat storage in land is the second largest term of the Earth heat inventory, affecting physical processes relevant to society and ecosystems, such as the stability of the soil carbon pool. Here, we present an update of the continental heat storage, combining for the first time the heat in the land subsurface, inland water bodies, and permafrost thawing. The continental landmasses stored 23.8 ± 2.0 × 1021 J during the period 1960–2020, but the distribution of heat among the three components is not homogeneous. The sensible diffusion of heat through the ground accounts for ∼90 % of the continental heat storage, with inland water bodies and permafrost degradation (i.e. latent heat) accounting for ∼0.7 % and ∼9 % of the continental heat, respectively. Although the inland water bodies and permafrost soils store less heat than the solid ground, we argue that their associated climate phenomena justify their monitoring and inclusion in the Earth heat inventory.\u0000","PeriodicalId":92775,"journal":{"name":"Earth system dynamics : ESD","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-05-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47616979","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Stable stadial and interstadial states of the last glacial's climate identified in a combined stable water isotope and dust record from Greenland","authors":"Keno Riechers, Leonardo Rydin Gorjão, Forough Hassanibesheli, P. Lind, D. Witthaut, N. Boers","doi":"10.5194/esd-14-593-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-593-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. During the last glacial interval, the Northern Hemisphere climate was punctuated by a series of abrupt changes between two characteristic climate regimes.\u0000The existence of stadial (cold) and interstadial (milder) periods is typically attributed to a hypothesised bistability in the glacial North Atlantic climate system, allowing for rapid transitions from the stadial to the interstadial state – the so-called Dansgaard–Oeschger (DO) events – and more gradual yet still fairly abrupt reverse shifts.\u0000The physical mechanisms driving these regime transitions remain debated.\u0000DO events are characterised by substantial warming over Greenland and a reorganisation of the Northern Hemisphere atmospheric circulation, which are evident from concomitant shifts in the δ18O ratios and dust concentration records from Greenland ice cores.\u0000Treating the combined δ18O and dust record obtained by the North Greenland Ice Core Project (NGRIP) as a realisation of a two-dimensional, time-homogeneous, and Markovian stochastic process, we present a reconstruction of its underlying deterministic drift based on the leading-order terms of the Kramers–Moyal equation.\u0000The analysis reveals two basins of attraction in the two-dimensional state space that can be identified with the stadial and interstadial regimes.\u0000The drift term of the dust exhibits a double-fold bifurcation structure, while – in contrast to prevailing assumptions – the δ18O component of the drift is clearly mono-stable.\u0000This suggests that the last glacial's Greenland temperatures should not be regarded as an intrinsically bistable climate variable.\u0000Instead, the two-regime nature of the δ18O record is apparently inherited from a coupling to another bistable climate process.\u0000In contrast, the bistability evidenced in the dust drift points to the presence of two stable circulation regimes of the last glacial's Northern Hemisphere atmosphere.\u0000","PeriodicalId":92775,"journal":{"name":"Earth system dynamics : ESD","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-05-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45274507","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The rate of information transfer as a measure of ocean–atmosphere interactions","authors":"D. Docquier, S. Vannitsem, A. Bellucci","doi":"10.5194/esd-14-577-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-577-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Exchanges of mass, momentum and energy between the ocean and atmosphere are of large importance in regulating the climate system. Here, we apply for the first time a relatively novel approach, the rate of information transfer, to quantify interactions between the ocean surface and the lower atmosphere over the period 1988–2017 at a monthly timescale. More specifically, we investigate dynamical dependencies between sea surface temperature (SST), SST tendency and turbulent heat flux in satellite observations. We find a strong two-way influence between SST and/or SST tendency and turbulent heat flux in many regions of the world, with the largest values in the eastern tropical Pacific and Atlantic oceans, as well as in western boundary currents. The total number of regions with a significant influence by turbulent heat flux on SST and on SST tendency is reduced when considering the three variables (this case should be privileged, as it provides additional sources of information), while it remains large for the information transfer from SST and SST tendency to turbulent heat flux, suggesting an overall stronger ocean influence compared to the atmosphere. We also find a relatively strong influence by turbulent heat flux taken 1 month before on SST. Additionally, an increase in the magnitude of the rate of information transfer and in the number of regions with significant influence is observed when looking at interannual and decadal timescales compared to monthly timescales.\u0000","PeriodicalId":92775,"journal":{"name":"Earth system dynamics : ESD","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-05-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46197432","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Opening Pandora's box: reducing global circulation model uncertainty in Australian simulations of the carbon cycle","authors":"Lina Teckentrup, M. D. De Kauwe, G. Abramowitz, A. Pitman, A. Ukkola, Sanaa Hobeichi, Bastien François, Benjamin Smith","doi":"10.5194/esd-14-549-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-549-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Climate projections from global circulation models (GCMs), part of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 6 (CMIP6), are often employed to study the impact of future climate on ecosystems. However, especially at regional scales, climate projections display large biases in key forcing variables such as temperature and precipitation. These biases have been identified as a major source of uncertainty in carbon cycle projections, hampering predictive capacity. In this study, we open the proverbial Pandora's box and peer under the lid of strategies to tackle climate model ensemble uncertainty. We employ a dynamic global vegetation model (LPJ-GUESS) and force it with raw output from CMIP6 to assess the uncertainty associated with the choice of climate forcing. We then test different methods to either bias-correct or calculate ensemble averages over the original forcing data to reduce the climate-driven uncertainty in the regional projection of the Australian carbon cycle. We find that all bias correction methods reduce the bias of continental averages of steady-state carbon variables. Bias correction can improve model carbon outputs, but carbon pools are insensitive to the type of bias correction method applied for both individual GCMs and the arithmetic ensemble average across all corrected models. None of the bias correction methods consistently improve the change in simulated carbon over time compared to the target dataset, highlighting the need to account for temporal properties in correction or ensemble-averaging methods. Multivariate bias correction methods tend to reduce the uncertainty more than univariate approaches, although the overall magnitude is similar. Even after correcting the bias in the meteorological forcing dataset, the simulated vegetation distribution presents different patterns when different GCMs are used to drive LPJ-GUESS. Additionally, we found that both the weighted ensemble-averaging and random forest approach reduce the bias in total ecosystem carbon to almost zero, clearly outperforming the arithmetic ensemble-averaging method. The random forest approach also produces the results closest to the target dataset for the change in the total carbon pool, seasonal carbon fluxes, emphasizing that machine learning approaches are promising tools for future studies. This highlights that, where possible, an arithmetic ensemble average should be avoided. However, potential target datasets that would facilitate the application of machine learning approaches, i.e., that cover both the spatial and temporal domain required to derive a robust informed ensemble average, are sparse for ecosystem variables.\u0000","PeriodicalId":92775,"journal":{"name":"Earth system dynamics : ESD","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-05-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"71223543","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Tracing the Snowball bifurcation of aquaplanets through time reveals a fundamental shift in critical-state dynamics","authors":"G. Feulner, M. Bukenberger, S. Petri","doi":"10.5194/esd-14-533-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-533-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. The instability with respect to global glaciation is a fundamental property of the climate system caused by the positive ice-albedo feedback. The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) at which this Snowball bifurcation occurs changes through Earth's history, most notably because of the slowly increasing solar luminosity. Quantifying this critical CO2 concentration is not only interesting from a climate dynamics perspective but also constitutes an important prerequisite for understanding past Snowball Earth episodes, as well as the conditions for habitability on Earth and other planets. Earlier studies are limited to investigations with very simple climate models for Earth's entire history or studies of individual time slices carried out with a variety of more complex models and for different boundary conditions, making comparisons and the identification of secular changes difficult. Here, we use a coupled climate model of intermediate complexity to trace the Snowball bifurcation of an aquaplanet through Earth's history in one consistent model framework. We find that the critical CO2 concentration decreased more or less logarithmically with increasing solar luminosity until about 1 billion years ago but dropped faster in more recent times. Furthermore, there was a fundamental shift in the dynamics of the critical state about 1.2 billion years ago (unrelated to the downturn in critical CO2 values), driven by the interplay of wind-driven sea-ice dynamics and the surface energy balance: for critical states at low solar luminosities, the ice line lies in the Ferrel cell, stabilised by the poleward winds despite moderate meridional temperature gradients under strong greenhouse warming. For critical states at high solar luminosities, on the other hand, the ice line rests at the Hadley cell boundary, stabilised against the equatorward winds by steep meridional temperature gradients resulting from the increased solar energy input at lower latitudes and stronger Ekman transport in the ocean.\u0000","PeriodicalId":92775,"journal":{"name":"Earth system dynamics : ESD","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-05-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49330907","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Countries most exposed to individual and concurrent extremes and near-permanent extreme conditions at different global warming levels","authors":"Fulden Batibeniz, M. Hauser, S. Seneviratne","doi":"10.5194/esd-14-485-2023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-485-2023","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. It is now certain that human-induced climate change is\u0000increasing the incidence of extreme temperature, precipitation and drought\u0000events globally. A critical aspect of these extremes is their potential\u0000concurrency that can result in substantial impacts on society and\u0000environmental systems. Therefore, quantifying concurrent extremes in current\u0000and projected climate is necessary to take measures and adapt to future\u0000challenges associated with such conditions. Here we investigate changes in\u0000individual and concurrent extremes in multi-model simulations of the sixth\u0000phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) for different\u0000global warming levels (GWLs). We focus on the individual and simultaneous\u0000occurrence of the extreme events, encompassing heatwaves, droughts, maximum\u00001 d precipitation (Rx1day), and extreme wind (wind), as well as the compound\u0000events heatwave–drought and Rx1day–wind in the pre-industrial period\u0000(1850–1900; reference period), for approximately present conditions\u0000(+1 ∘C of global warming), and at three higher global warming\u0000levels (GWLs of +1.5, +2 and +3 ∘C). We focus our analysis on 139 countries and three climatic macro-regions:\u0000northern mid- and high-latitude countries (MHC), subtropical countries\u0000(STC), and tropical countries (TRC). We find that, on a global scale, most\u0000individual extremes become more frequent and affect more land area for\u0000higher GWLs. Changes in frequency of individual heatwaves, droughts, Rx1day and extreme wind with higher GWLs cause shifts in timing and disproportionate\u0000increases in frequency of concurrent events across different months and\u0000different regions. As a result, concurrent occurrences of the investigated\u0000extremes become 2.0 to 9.6 times more frequent at +3 ∘C of\u0000global warming compared to the pre-industrial period. At +3 ∘C\u0000the most dramatic increase is identified for concurrent heatwave–drought\u0000events, with a 9.6-times increase for MHC, an 8.4-times increase for STC\u0000and a 6.8-times increase for TRC compared to the pre-industrial period. By\u0000contrast, Rx1day–wind events increased the most in TRC (5.3 times), followed\u0000by STC (2.3 times) and MHC (2.0 times) at +3 ∘C with respect to\u0000the pre-industrial period. Based on the 2015 population, these frequency\u0000changes imply an increase in the number of concurrent heatwave–drought\u0000(Rx1day–wind) events per capita for 82 % (41 %) of countries. Our\u0000results also suggest that there are almost no time periods (on average 0\u0000or only 1 month per year) without heatwaves, droughts, Rx1day and extreme\u0000wind for 21 countries at +1.5 ∘C of global warming, 37 countries\u0000at +2 ∘C and 85 countries at +3 ∘C, compared to 2\u0000countries at +1 ∘C of global warming. This shows that a large\u0000number of countries will shift to near-permanent extreme conditions even at\u0000global warming levels consistent with the limits of the Paris Agreement.\u0000Given the projected disproportionate frequency increases and decreasing\u0000non-event months across GWLs, our results strongly emphas","PeriodicalId":92775,"journal":{"name":"Earth system dynamics : ESD","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-04-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45372771","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}