{"title":"The role of reverse genetics systems in determining filovirus pathogenicity.","authors":"S Theriault, A Groseth, H Artsob, H Feldmann","doi":"10.1007/3-211-29981-5_13","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/3-211-29981-5_13","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The family Filoviridae is comprised of two genera: Marburgvirus and Ebolavirus. To date minigenome systems have been developed for two Ebola viruses (Reston ebolavirus and Zaire ebolavirus [ZEBOV]) as well as for Lake Victoria marburgvirus, the sole member of the Marburgvirus genus. The use of these minigenome systems has helped characterize functions for many viral proteins in both genera and have provided valuable insight towards the development of an infectious clone system in the case of ZEBOV. The recent development of two such infectious clone systems for ZEBOV now allow effective strategies for experimental mutagenesis to study the biology and pathogenesis of one of the most lethal human pathogens.</p>","PeriodicalId":77010,"journal":{"name":"Archives of virology. Supplementum","volume":" 19","pages":"157-77"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2005-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/3-211-29981-5_13","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"25751743","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
R G Webster, Y Guan, L Poon, S Krauss, R Webby, E Govorkovai, M Peiris
{"title":"The spread of the H5N1 bird flu epidemic in Asia in 2004.","authors":"R G Webster, Y Guan, L Poon, S Krauss, R Webby, E Govorkovai, M Peiris","doi":"10.1007/3-211-29981-5_10","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/3-211-29981-5_10","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>H5N1 avian influenza has spread to eight countries in eastern Asia including China, Japan, South Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and Indonesia in early 2004. This H5N1 influenza A virus is extremely virulent in poultry including chickens and ducks, killing millions of birds throughout the region. Additionally this virus has transmitted to humans (mainly children) in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand, killing 54 of 100 diagnosed persons. To control this epidemic hundreds of millions of chickens and ducks have been culled. One genotype of H5N1 designated \"Z\" has become dominant in Asia. This virus was first detected in wild birds in Hong Kong in November 2002 and was antigenically distinct from H5N1 viruses isolated from 1997 to early 2002 and lethal for aquatic birds. The H5N1 virus infecting humans and poultry in Asia in 2004 is an antigenic variant of the Z genotype. Here we consider the possible role of migrating birds in the evolution and spread of the H5N1 influenza A virus throughout Asia. We conclude that the available information is consistent with a role for migrating birds but limited information is available and that serological studies are urgently needed on migrating birds worldwide. The prospect is that this H5N1/04 influenza A virus will become endemic in poultry in eastern Asia and will be a continuing threat to animal and human health. It is also projected that a human H5N1 vaccine will eventually be needed.</p>","PeriodicalId":77010,"journal":{"name":"Archives of virology. Supplementum","volume":" 19","pages":"117-29"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2005-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/3-211-29981-5_10","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"25754433","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The virus-immunity ecosystem.","authors":"P C Doherty, S J Turner","doi":"10.1007/3-211-29981-5_3","DOIUrl":"10.1007/3-211-29981-5_3","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The ecology of pathogenic viruses can be considered both in the context of survival in the macro-environments of nature, the theme pursued generally by epidemiologists, and in the micro-environments of the infected host. The long-lived, complex, higher vertebrates have evolved specialized, adaptive immune systems designed to minimise the consequences of such parasitism. Through evolutionary time, the differential selective pressures exerted variously by the need for virus and host survival have shaped both the \"one-host\" viruses and vertebrate immunity. With the development of vaccines to protect us from many of our most familiar parasites, the most dangerous pathogens threatening us now tend to be those \"emerging\", or adventitious, infectious agents that sporadically enter human populations from avian or other wild-life reservoirs. Such incursions must, of course, have been happening through the millenia, and are likely to have led to the extraordinary diversity of recognition molecules, the breadth in effector functions, and the persistent memory that distinguishes the vertebrate, adaptive immune system from the innate response mechanisms that operate more widely through animal biology. Both are important to contemporary humans and, particularly in the period immediately following infection, we still rely heavily on an immediate response capacity, elements of which are shared with much simpler, and more primitive organisms. Perhaps we will now move forward to develop useful therapies that exploit, or mimic, such responses. At this stage, however, most of our hopes for minimizing the threat posed by viruses still focus on the manipulation of the more precisely targeted, adaptive immune system.</p>","PeriodicalId":77010,"journal":{"name":"Archives of virology. Supplementum","volume":" 19","pages":"17-32"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2005-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7120975/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"25751866","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Control of arbovirus diseases: is the vector the weak link?","authors":"B J Beaty","doi":"10.1007/3-211-29981-5_7","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/3-211-29981-5_7","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Arthropod-borne virus (arbovirus) diseases (ABVDs) remain major threats to human health and well-being and, as an epidemiologic group, inflict an unacceptable health and economic burden on humans and animals, including livestock. The developed world has been fortunate to have escaped much of the burden that arboviruses and their arthropod vectors inflict on humans in disease endemic countries, but the introduction and rapid spread of West Nile virus in the Western Hemisphere demonstrated that we can no longer be complacent in the face of these emerging and resurging vector-borne diseases. Unfortunately, as the burdens and threats of ABVDs have increased, the U.S. and international public health capacity to address them has decreased. Vaccines are not available for most of these agents. Previously successful strategies to control ABVDs emphasized vector control, but source reduction and vector control strategies using pesticides have not been sustainable. New insights into vector biology and vector pathogen interactions, and the novel targets that likely will be forthcoming in the vector post-genomics era, provide new targets and opportunities for vector control and disease reduction programs. These findings and approaches must be incorporated into existing strategies if we are to control these important pathogens.</p>","PeriodicalId":77010,"journal":{"name":"Archives of virology. Supplementum","volume":" 19","pages":"73-88"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2005-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/3-211-29981-5_7","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"25754432","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
G K Sahu, T McNearney, A Evans, A Turner, S Weaver, J C Huang, S Baron, D Paar, M W Cloyd
{"title":"Transient or occult HIV infections may occur more frequently than progressive infections: changing the paradigm about HIV persistence.","authors":"G K Sahu, T McNearney, A Evans, A Turner, S Weaver, J C Huang, S Baron, D Paar, M W Cloyd","doi":"10.1007/3-211-29981-5_11","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/3-211-29981-5_11","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Evidence of transient HIV infections was found in 8 subjects at high-risk for HIV infection among 47 longitudinally studied over 2-5 (average approximately 3.5) years, whereas only two subjects developed progressive infection. All of these subjects developed serum antibodies (Ab) to conformational epitopes of HIV gp41 (termed \"early HIV Ab\"), but the 8 transiently infected subjects lost this Ab within 4-18 months, and did not seroconvert to positivity in denatured antigen EIA or Western Blot (WB). However, the two progressively infected subjects eventually seroconverted in the EIA and WB tests within one to two months after the appearance of \"early HIV Ab\". HIV env and nef sequences were directly PCR amplified from the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of two of the eight transiently infected subjects during the time of \"early HIV Ab\"-postivity, and these showed significant sequence divergence from the HIV strains in the laboratory, indicating that they were not laboratory contaminants. Genome identity typing (\"paternity-typing\") of PBMC samples obtained at the time of \"early HIV Ab\"-positivity, and later when Ab was absent from each of the 8 subjects, showed that blood samples were not mixed-up. This provides further evidence that transient or occult infection with HIV does occur, and perhaps at a greater frequency than do progressive infections.</p>","PeriodicalId":77010,"journal":{"name":"Archives of virology. Supplementum","volume":" 19","pages":"131-45"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2005-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/3-211-29981-5_11","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"25751742","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Academic science and the business of vaccines.","authors":"R E Johnston","doi":"10.1007/3-211-29981-5_16","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/3-211-29981-5_16","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":77010,"journal":{"name":"Archives of virology. Supplementum","volume":" 19","pages":"203-6"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2005-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"25751745","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Species barriers in prion diseases--brief review.","authors":"R A Moore, I Vorberg, S A Priola","doi":"10.1007/3-211-29981-5_15","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/3-211-29981-5_15","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs or prion diseases) are neurological disorders associated with the aggregation of a pathologic isoform of a host-encoded protein, termed prion protein (PrP). The pathologic isoform of PrP, termed PrP(Sc), is a major constituent of the infectious agent. TSE diseases are characterized by neurodegenerative failure and inevitable morbidity. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) has been transmitted from cattle to humans to cause a new variant of Creutzfeldt-Jakob syndrome. The potential for chronic wasting disease to similarly cross the species barrier from cervids to humans is considered unlikely but possible. Thus, understanding how TSE agents overcome resistance to transmission between species is crucial if we are to prevent future epidemics. The species barrier usually can be abrogated to varying degrees in laboratory animals. Studies done with transgenic animals, tissue culture, and cell-free assays established PrP as being necessary for TSE pathogenesis and illustrated that certain amino acid residues are more influential than others for conferring resistance to TSE agent transmission. The essence of what constitutes a TSE agent's species compatibility is thought to be orchestrated by a complex interplay of contributions from its primary amino acid sequence, its glycoform patterns, and its three-dimensional structure.</p>","PeriodicalId":77010,"journal":{"name":"Archives of virology. Supplementum","volume":" 19","pages":"187-202"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2005-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/3-211-29981-5_15","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"25751744","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
D W C Beasley, C T Davis, M Whiteman, B Granwehr, R M Kinney, A D T Barrett
{"title":"Molecular determinants of virulence of West Nile virus in North America.","authors":"D W C Beasley, C T Davis, M Whiteman, B Granwehr, R M Kinney, A D T Barrett","doi":"10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_4","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_4","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that until very recently had not been found in the Americas. In 1999, there was an outbreak of West Nile encephalitis in New York and surrounding areas, involving 62 human cases, including 7 fatalities. The virus has subsequently become established in the United States of America (U.S.) with 4156 human cases, including 284 deaths, in 2002. The WNV strains found in the U.S. are members of \"lineage I\", a genetic grouping that includes viruses from Europe, Asia and Africa. Molecular epidemiologic studies indicate that two genetic variants of WNV emerged in 2002. The major genetic variant is found in most parts of the U.S., while the minor genetic variant has been identified only on the southeast coast of Texas. Investigation of WNV in mouse and hamster models demonstrated that strains from the U.S. are highly neurovirulent and neuroinvasive in these laboratory rodents. Other strains, such as Ethiopia 76a from lineage I, are not neuroinvasive and represent important viruses which can be used to elucidate the molecular basis of virulence and attenuation of WNV. To identify putative molecular determinants of virulence and attenuation, we have undertaken comparative nucleotide sequencing of Ethiopia 76a and strains from the U.S. The results show that the two viruses differ by 5 amino acids in the envelope (E) protein, including loss of the glycosylation site. Comparison of our panel of 27 WNV strains suggests that E protein glycosylation is a major determinant of the mouse neuroinvasive phenotype.</p>","PeriodicalId":77010,"journal":{"name":"Archives of virology. Supplementum","volume":" 18","pages":"35-41"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2004-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_4","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"24498162","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Evolution and dispersal of encephalitic flaviviruses.","authors":"E A Gould, S R Moss, S L Turner","doi":"10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_6","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_6","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>There are two major groups of encephalitic flaviviruses, those that infect and are transmitted by ticks, particularly Ixodes spp. and those that infect and are transmitted by mosquitoes, particularly Culex spp. The tick-borne encephalitic flaviviruses exhibit evolutionary characteristics that are largely determined by the protracted life cycle of the tick, its habitat and the prevailing climatic conditions. These viruses appear to have evolved gradually from non-encephalitic viruses that radiated eastwards and north eastwards out of Africa into Asia and the southern islands, then northwards to far east Asia and finally westwards across Eurasia to western Europe, during the past two to four thousand years. Only one of these recognized species has found its way to North America viz. Powassan virus. In contrast, the evolution of the recognized mosquito-borne encephalitic flaviviruses reflects the wide range of mosquito species that they infect. They emerged out of Africa relatively recently and at roughly the same time, i.e., probably during the past few centuries. Although many of these mosquito-borne viruses are geographically widely dispersed, with the exception of West Nile virus, they are found either in the Old World or the New World, never in both, and we are now beginning to understand the reasons. Phylogenetic trees will be used here to describe the evolution, epidemiology and dispersal characteristics of these viruses, taking into account the importance of virus persistence and recombination.</p>","PeriodicalId":77010,"journal":{"name":"Archives of virology. Supplementum","volume":" 18","pages":"65-84"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2004-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"24498164","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Future vaccines against emerging encephalitides.","authors":"R E Johnston, N L Davis","doi":"10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_19","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_19","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The vaccine strategies available for control of emerging encephalitides range in a continuum from traditional approaches to those utilizing new technologies. In this report, we explore the use of live attenuated vaccines where the attenuating mutations have been selected in a rational way to improve attenuation without sacrificing effectiveness. A strategy for paired lethal and resuscitating mutations is presented that will greatly reduce the possibility of reversion to virulence. Finally, we describe an example of a vaccine vector system that could be rapidly adapted for use against these virus diseases as they emerge.</p>","PeriodicalId":77010,"journal":{"name":"Archives of virology. Supplementum","volume":" 18","pages":"207-20"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2004-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"24498701","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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