Frontiers in virology最新文献

{"title":"Isolation and phylogenetic characterization of arboviruses circulating among phlebotomine sandflies in parts of North Rift, Kenya","authors":"Edith Koskei, Solomon Langat, James Mutisya, Francis Mulwa, Joel Lutomiah, Hellen Koka, Samuel O. Oyola, Rebecca Waihenya, Sepha N. Mabeya, Rosemary Sang","doi":"10.3389/fviro.2024.1289258","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fviro.2024.1289258","url":null,"abstract":"BackgroundUntil recently, arbovirus surveillance is mainly focused on mosquito and tick vectors, resulting in the discovery of several mosquito- and tick-borne arboviruses. However, the role of sandflies in arbovirus transmission and disease has remained largely unexplored. This study sought to isolate and characterize arboviruses from phlebotomine sandflies from selected pastoral ecozones in the North Rift region of Kenya.MethodsSandflies were collected from selected sites in North Rift Kenya between 2015 and 2018. They were sorted and pooled by sex, site, and collection date. The pools were homogenized and inoculated onto Vero cells for virus isolation. The positive pools were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction targeting different arboviruses. The isolates were further characterized by high-throughput sequencing using Illumina Miseq platform.ResultsApproximately 28,226 sandflies translating to 824 pools were sampled from the selected regions. A total of 11 showed reproducible cytopathic effects on Vero cells. We identified five arboviruses: sindbis (n = 4) from Kacheliba and Baringo, Chandipura (n = 4) from Turkana and Baringo, Koutango (n = 1) and Ntepes (n = 1) from Baringo, and Bogoria (n = 1) from Kacheliba. The percent identities of the identified viruses were approximately 80% to 98% compared to known viruses in GenBank, suggesting that some of them could be novel viruses.ConclusionThis study successfully isolated and characterized five arboviruses from sandflies. The findings suggest that sandflies are potential hosts of a wide range of arboviruses and are therefore important vectors to consider in arbovirus surveillance and evaluated for their ability to transmit them. Further studies are needed to determine the public health importance and extent of exposure of these viruses to humans and livestock populations.","PeriodicalId":73114,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in virology","volume":"45 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140841169","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"No detectable differences in Nef-mediated downregulation of HLA-I and CD4 molecules among HIV-1 group M lineages circulating in Cameroon, where the pandemic originated","authors":"Nelson Sonela, Jaclyn Mann, Celestin Godwe, Oumarou H. Goni, Mérime Tchakoute, Nathalie Nkoue, Tulio de Oliveira, Mark A. Brockman, Zabrina L. Brumme, Thumbi Ndung’u, Marcel Tongo","doi":"10.3389/fviro.2024.1379217","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fviro.2024.1379217","url":null,"abstract":"HIV-1 group M (HIV-1M) lineages downregulate HLA-I and CD4 expression via their Nef proteins. We hypothesized that these Nef functions may be partially responsible for the differences in prevalence of viruses from different lineages that co-circulate within an epidemic. Here, we characterized these two Nef activities in HIV-1M isolates from Cameroon, where multiple variants have been circulating since the pandemic’s origin. Single HIV-1 Nef clones from 234 HIV-1-ART naïve individuals living in remote villages and two cosmopolitan cities of Cameroon, sampled between 2000 and 2013, were isolated from plasma HIV RNA and analyzed for their capacity to downregulate HLA-I and CD4 molecules. We found that, despite a large degree of within- and inter- lineage variation, the ability of Nef to downregulate HLA-I was similar across these different viruses. Moreover, Nef-mediated CD4 downregulation activity was also well conserved across the different lineages found in Cameroon. In addition, we observed a trend towards higher HLA-I downregulation activity of viruses circulating in the cosmopolitan cities versus the remote villages, whereas the CD4 downregulation activities were similar across the two settings. Furthermore, we noted a significant decline of HLA-I downregulation activity from 2000 to 2013, providing additional evidence supporting the attenuation of the global HIV-1M population over time. Finally, we identified 18 amino acids associated with differential HLA-I downregulation and 13 amino acids associated with differential CD4 downregulation within the dominant CRF02_AG lineage. Our lack of observation of HIV lineage-related differences in Nef-mediated HLA-I and CD4 downregulation function suggests that these activities do not substantively influence the prevalence of different HIV-1M lineages in Cameroon.","PeriodicalId":73114,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in virology","volume":"41 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141171490","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A fatal pediatric infection with a C1-like subgenogroup enterovirus A71: case study and enterovirus A71 epidemiology in Finland","authors":"Tea Nieminen, Anne J. Jääskeläinen, Erika Lindh, Soile Blomqvist, Carita Savolainen-Kopra","doi":"10.3389/fviro.2024.1381001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fviro.2024.1381001","url":null,"abstract":"Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) is among the most neuropathogenic non-polio enterovirus types and, in rare instances, can lead to severe or even fatal outcomes, particularly in children under 5 years of age. This case study presents clinical and microbiological findings from the initial documented severe pediatric EV-A71 case in Finland, identified in May 2019. The near-complete genome sequence confirms that the EV-A71 strain belongs to the newly identified recombinant C1-like EV-A71 genetic lineage, which emerged in 2015 and has since been circulating in Europe, causing severe cases among children in various European countries. Enhanced environmental surveillance revealed widespread circulation of EV-A71 in Finland in 2019. However, the overall number of EV clinical cases remained lower than in previous years.","PeriodicalId":73114,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in virology","volume":"59 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140592596","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Persistent transgene expression in peripheral tissues one year post intravenous and intramuscular administration of AAV vectors containing the alphaherpesvirus latency-associated promoter 2","authors":"Carola J. Maturana, Esteban A. Engel","doi":"10.3389/fviro.2024.1379991","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fviro.2024.1379991","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Significant progress has been made in enhancing recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) for clinical investigation. Despite its versatility as a gene delivery platform, the inherent packaging constraint of 4.7 kb imposes restrictions on the range of diseases it can address. In this context, we present findings of an exceptionally compact and long-term promoter that facilitates the expression of larger genes compared to conventional promoters. This compact promoter originated from the genome of the alphaherpesvirus pseudorabies virus, latency-associated promoter 2 (LAP2, 404 bp). Promoter driving an mCherry reporter was packaged into single strand (ss) AAV8 and AAV9 vectors and injected into adult C57BL/6 mice at a dose of 5 x 1011 vg/mouse by single intravenous or intramuscular administration. An ssAAV8 and ssAAV9 vector with elongation factor-1α promoter (EF1α, 1264 bp) was injected side-by-side for comparison. After 400 days, we sacrificed the mice and examined mCherry expression in liver, kidney, heart, lung, spleen, pancreas, skeletal muscle, and brain. We found that LAP2 exhibited robust transgene expression across a wide range of cells and tissues comparable to the larger EF1α, which is currently recognized as a rather potent and ubiquitous promoter. The AAV8-LAP2 and AAV9-LAP2 constructs displayed strong transduction and transcription in liver, kidney, and skeletal muscle on both route of administration. However, no expression was detected in the heart, lung, spleen, pancreas, and brain. The outcomes of our investigation propose the viability of LAP2 for gene therapy applications demanding the expression of large or multiple therapeutic genes following a single viral-vector administration.</p>","PeriodicalId":73114,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in virology","volume":"26 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140311625","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Virological characteristics correlating with SARS-CoV-2 spike protein fusogenicity","authors":"MST Monira Begum, Kimiko Ichihara, Otowa Takahashi, Hesham Nasser, Michael Jonathan, Kenzo Tokunaga, Isao Yoshida, Mami Nagashima, Kenji Sadamasu, Kazuhisa Yoshimura, The Genotype to Phenotype Japan (G2P-Japan) Consortium, Kei Sato, Terumasa Ikeda, Keita Matsuno, Naganori Nao, Hirofumi Sawa, Shinya Tanaka, Masumi Tsuda, Lei Wang, Yoshikata Oda, Zannatul Ferdous, Kenji Shishido, Takasuke Fukuhara, Tomokazu Tamura, Rigel Suzuki, Saori Suzuki, Hayato Ito, Jumpei Ito, Yu Kaku, Naoko Misawa, Arnon Plianchaisuk, Ziyi Guo, Alfredo Jr. Hinay, Keiya Uriu, Yusuke Kosugi, Shigeru Fujita, Jarel Elgin Mendoza Tolentino, Luo Chen, Lin Pan6, Mai Suganami, Mika Chiba, Ryo Yoshimura, Kyoko Yasuda, Keiko Iida, Naomi Ohsumi, Adam Patrick Strange, Hiroyuki Asakura, Isao Yoshida, So Nakagawa, Akifumi Takaori-Kondo, Kotaro Shirakawa, Kayoko Nagata, Ryosuke Nomura, Yoshihito Horisawa, Yusuke Tashiro, Yugo Kawai, Kazuo Takayama, Rina Hashimoto, Sayaka Deguchi, Yukio Watanabe, Ayaka Sakamoto, Naoko Yasuhara, Takao Hashiguchi, Tateki Suzuki, Kanako Kimura, Jiei Sasaki, Yukari Nakajima, Hisano Yajima, Takashi Irie, Ryoko Kawabata, Kaori Tabata, Ryo Shimizu1, Yuka Mugita1, Takamasa Ueno, Chihiro Motozono, Mako Toyoda, Akatsuki Saito, Maya Shofa, Yuki Shibatani, Tomoko Nishiuchi","doi":"10.3389/fviro.2024.1353661","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fviro.2024.1353661","url":null,"abstract":"<sec><title>Introduction</title><p>The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) spike (S) protein is essential in mediating membrane fusion of the virus with the target cells. Several reports demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 S protein fusogenicity is reportedly closely associated with the intrinsic pathogenicity of the virus determined using hamster models. However, the association between S protein fusogenicity and other virological parameters remains elusive.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>In this study, we investigated the virological parameters (e.g., S1/S2 cleavage efficiency, plaque size, pseudoviral infectivity, pseudovirus entry efficiency, and viral replication kinetics) of eleven previous variants of concern (VOCs) and variants of interest (VOIs) correlating with S protein fusogenicity.</p></sec><sec><title>Results and discussion</title><p>S protein fusogenicity was found to be strongly correlated with S1/S2 cleavage efficiency and plaque size formed by clinical isolates. However, S protein fusogenicity was less associated with pseudoviral infectivity, pseudovirus entry efficiency, and viral replication kinetics. Taken together, our results suggest that S1/S2 cleavage efficiency and plaque size could be potential indicators to predict the intrinsic pathogenicity and S protein fusogenicity of newly emerged SARS-CoV-2 variants.</p></sec>","PeriodicalId":73114,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in virology","volume":"33 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140128279","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Decoding chikungunya virus non-structural protein 3 interacting partners in THP-1 derived infected macrophages through proteomic profiling","authors":"Priyanshu Srivastava, Nimisha Mishra, Sakshi Chaudhary, Sujatha Sunil","doi":"10.3389/fviro.2024.1310161","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fviro.2024.1310161","url":null,"abstract":"<sec><title>Introduction</title><p>Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), an alphavirus transmitted by mosquitoes, has instigated several epidemics in recent years, sparking intensive efforts to understand its biology. Despite progress, the understanding of CHIKV’s molecular interactions with host cell constituents, especially in susceptible cells such as macrophages remains limited.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>We used a mass spectrometry platform to characterize the interactions between CHIKV-nsP3, a viral nonstructural protein, and proteins in human THP-1 macrophage cells.</p></sec><sec><title>Results and Discussion</title><p>Our findings revealed 196 high-confidence interactions primarily involving nsP3. Further, the sub-cellular localization, and pathways these interacting proteins might be involved in were deduced using computational methods. The interacting partners were further incorporated into a comprehensive host-virus interaction network derived from extensive literature on alphavirus-host interactions. Collectively, this study offers the first interaction map between CHIKV nsP3 protein and THP-1 cells, illuminating new probable roles of host cell proteins in CHIKV’s replication cycle.</p></sec>","PeriodicalId":73114,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in virology","volume":"18 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140128339","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The roles of HCV core protein and its binding host factor in virus assembly and release","authors":"Kyo Izumida, Eiji Morita","doi":"10.3389/fviro.2024.1383261","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fviro.2024.1383261","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a well-known virus that causes liver diseases such as liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. For several decades, numerous studies have been conducted to unravel the life cycle and molecular mechanisms of this virus with the aim of developing strategies to combat diseases caused by its infection. In this review, we summarize HCV assembly to budding, focusing on one of the structural proteins, the core, a viral capsid that binds both the viral genome and host membrane, along with the core-interacting host partners. The HCV core matures in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), localizes at the lipid droplet (LD), and shuttles between the LD and ER to form viral particles. This process is controlled by many host factors known to binds core proteins, such as diacylglycerol acyltransferase-1 (DGAT-1), Rab18, μ subunit of the clathrin adaptor protein complex 2 (AP2M1), nuclear pore complex protein 98 (Nup98), Cortactin, group IVA phospholipase A2 (PLA2G4A) etc. Virion budding is thought to involve contributions from endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT), similar to other envelope viruses. We delved into potential perspectives to enhance our understanding of the HCV mechanism by drawing insights from existing studies.</p>","PeriodicalId":73114,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in virology","volume":"13 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-02-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140155309","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"DNA methylation in long COVID","authors":"Yangfan Xiao, Sten H. Vermund","doi":"10.3389/fviro.2024.1371683","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fviro.2024.1371683","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Long COVID (also termed Post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 [PASC]) refers to the chronic symptoms that survivors may experience after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and acute coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) disease. Long COVID represents a global public health, medical, and nursing challenge that affects millions of people. As an emerging and evolving syndrome, long COVID manifests with many combinations of clinical signs and symptoms that healthcare providers and scientists are cataloging and struggling to understand. In this mini-review, we introduce the epigenetic battlefield of DNA methylation (DNAm) on which the virus and the host interact. We suggest ways in which DNAm phenomena and markers induced by this virus-host interaction may help clarify the pathology and prognosis of long COVID. Knowledge of DNAm characteristics of long COVID patients is limited as of this writing (early-2024), investigators have noted both the partial reversibility and the potential long-lasting persistence of the DNAm markers induced by acute COVID-19. Long-term sequelae seen in other coronavirus diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) are potential references for long COVID in an effort towards more precise diagnosis and disease characterization, better prediction of outcomes, and the use of epigenetic phenomena towards development of new drugs and immunotherapies.</p>","PeriodicalId":73114,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in virology","volume":"29 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-02-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140047248","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"ESCRT-III-dependent and -independent egress of herpesviruses","authors":"Jun Arii","doi":"10.3389/fviro.2024.1378054","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fviro.2024.1378054","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Enveloped viruses complete their replication cycle by forming virions that bud from infected cells through membrane scission. The mechanisms by which this is achieved are less well-understood than the well-characterized membrane scission of vesicles budding inwards into the cytosol. The scission of vesicles that bud away from the cytosol is mediated by machinery of the endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT)-III, which is highjacked by viruses of several different families. Other groups of viruses can bud independently of ESCRT-III activity. It has not been fully elucidated how the latter achieve this in the absence of host ESCRT-III, but it is known that some viral proteins directly mediate membrane scission. The <italic>Herpesviridae</italic> constitute a family of highly diverse viruses that bud at the inner nuclear membrane and cytoplasmic membranes in infected cells. Many investigators have attempted to determine the mechanism of membrane scission during herpesvirus budding, and have found this to be complex, not exactly conforming to either of the two methods. The present review attempts to synthesize the disparate findings into a model of herpesvirus egress based on both ESCRT-mediated and viral protein-mediated mechanisms.</p>","PeriodicalId":73114,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in virology","volume":"740 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-02-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140036973","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Changing rates but persisting seasons: patterns of enterovirus infections in hospitalizations and outpatient visits in Denmark 2015-2022","authors":"Caroline Klint Johannesen, Amanda Marie Egeskov-Cavling, Micha Phill Grønholm Jepsen, Theis Lange, Tyra Grove Krause, Ulrikka Nygaard, Thea K. Fischer","doi":"10.3389/fviro.2024.1346352","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fviro.2024.1346352","url":null,"abstract":"<sec><title>Background</title><p>Enteroviruses (EV) constitute a diverse group of viruses manifesting a broad spectrum of clinical presentations in humans ranging from mild skin manifestations to more severe central nervous system (CNS) infection. Severe infections are reported with increased frequency globally, albeit the burden of diseases and the evolution of circulating viruses is largely unknown. We aimed to systematically explore contemporary trends in hospitalizations attributed to EV infections using national hospitalization discharge data.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>We utilized the Danish National Patient Register which holds information on all contacts to Danish hospitals. We covered eight full years (2015-2022). Length-of-stay and administrative procedure codes were used to distinguish hospital admissions from outpatient visits. We utilized burden of disease estimates and distribution statistics.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>We identified 1029 hospitalizations and 1970 outpatient visits due to EV infections. The hospital admissions were primarily associated with CNS-infections (n=570, 55.4%) and skin (n=252, 24.5%), with variation over the studied period. The admitted patients were predominately children (43.8%) though patients were identified in all ages. The clinical manifestation was associated with age, with CNS infections dominating in the neonates and adults, and skin infections dominating in children 1-2 years (17.2%). Outpatient visits were predominantly observed among children 1-2 years (55.0%), presenting with skin symptoms (77.9%). We show a seasonal pattern of EV infections with summer/fall peaks and markedly impact on the EV hospitalization burden related to COVID-19 mitigation measures including national lockdown periods. 25% of hospital admissions occurred during 2020-2022.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusion</title><p>EV infections caused both hospital admissions and outpatient visits in the period studied, predominately among children aged 1-2 years. Overall, skin infections dominated the outpatient visits, while the majority of hospital admissions were due to CNS infections. The pandemic period did not change the seasonal pattern of EV infections but notably lowered the number of admissions to hospital with CNS infection and raised the number of outpatient admissions with skin infection.</p></sec>","PeriodicalId":73114,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in virology","volume":"43 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140009504","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}