EncyclopediaPub Date : 2024-01-12DOI: 10.3390/encyclopedia4010011
Michael Athanasopoulos, Pinelopi Samara, Ioannis Athanasopoulos
{"title":"A Journey to Hear: The Evolution of Cochlear Implants","authors":"Michael Athanasopoulos, Pinelopi Samara, Ioannis Athanasopoulos","doi":"10.3390/encyclopedia4010011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010011","url":null,"abstract":"Cochlear implants (CIs), a revolutionary breakthrough in auditory technology, have profoundly impacted the lives of individuals with severe hearing impairment. Surgically implanted behind the ear and within the delicate cochlea, these devices represent a direct pathway to restoring the sense of hearing. Implanting hope alongside innovation, their captivating history unfolds through pivotal dates and transformative milestones. From the first human implantation by Drs. William House and John Doyle in 1961 to FDA approval in 1984, each step in their evolution mirrors a triumph of human ingenuity. The 1990s witnessed significant miniaturization, enhancing accessibility, while the 21st century brought about improvements in speech processing and electrode technology. These strides have elevated CIs beyond functional devices to life-changing instruments, enriching both auditory experiences and communication skills. This entry delves into the captivating history of CIs, spotlighting key dates that paint a vivid picture of challenges overcome and remarkable progress achieved. It explores the people and moments that defined their development, ultimately shaping these implants into indispensable tools that continually redefine the landscape of hearing assistance.","PeriodicalId":72905,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia","volume":"11 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139437894","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
EncyclopediaPub Date : 2024-01-10DOI: 10.3390/encyclopedia4010010
Ziqi Ma, Linna Shi, Katherine (Kexin) Yu, Nan Zhou
{"title":"Director Interlocks: Information Transfer in Board Networks","authors":"Ziqi Ma, Linna Shi, Katherine (Kexin) Yu, Nan Zhou","doi":"10.3390/encyclopedia4010010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010010","url":null,"abstract":"Director interlocks occur when a board member or an executive of a firm sits on the board of directors of another firm. As an essential social network application in the business world, interlocking directorates are documented to be non-trivial from the 1930s and continue to gain popularity thereafter. Corporate information and business practices can be transferred to another firm through an interlocking director sitting on both companies’ boards. Such information dissemination leads to changes in an interlocking firm’s decision-making processes. Existing business research attempts to decipher the underlying reasons why board interlocks become prevalent, how and what information is being transferred through this channel, and the intended or unintended consequences to firm strategic, governance, financing, and accounting practices. We first introduce theoretical research on board interlocks in management and then follow up with empirical evidence in finance and accounting. Since extant studies have not reached a consensus on various consequences of board interlocks, we contribute to the literature by summarizing the findings from multi-business disciplines, discussing their advantages and disadvantages, and calling for more research on the topic.","PeriodicalId":72905,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia","volume":"56 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139441116","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
EncyclopediaPub Date : 2024-01-05DOI: 10.3390/encyclopedia4010009
Md. Ikram Ul Hoque, S. Donne, R. Holze
{"title":"Graphene Nanocomposite Materials for Supercapacitor Electrodes","authors":"Md. Ikram Ul Hoque, S. Donne, R. Holze","doi":"10.3390/encyclopedia4010009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010009","url":null,"abstract":"Graphene and related materials (graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide) as a subclass of carbon materials and their composites have been examined in various functions as materials in supercapacitor electrodes. They have been suggested as active masses for electrodes in electrochemical double-layer capacitors, tested as conducting additives for redox-active materials showing only poor electronic conductivity, and their use as a coating of active materials for corrosion and dissolution protection has been suggested. They have also been examined as a corrosion-protection coating of metallic current collectors; paper-like materials prepared from them have been proposed as mechanical support and as a current collector of supercapacitor electrodes. This entry provides an overview with representative examples. It outlines advantages, challenges, and future directions.","PeriodicalId":72905,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia","volume":"44 45","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139382347","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
EncyclopediaPub Date : 2024-01-05DOI: 10.3390/encyclopedia4010008
Rami Salmo, C. Viña, João Lozano, A. M. Palomero, José Ángel Hernández, R. Bonilla, R. Sánchez-Andrade, A. Paz-Silva, L. M. Madeira de Carvalho, M. Arias, C. Cazapal-Monteiro
{"title":"Saprophytic Filamentous Fungi against Helminths Affecting Captive Wild Animals","authors":"Rami Salmo, C. Viña, João Lozano, A. M. Palomero, José Ángel Hernández, R. Bonilla, R. Sánchez-Andrade, A. Paz-Silva, L. M. Madeira de Carvalho, M. Arias, C. Cazapal-Monteiro","doi":"10.3390/encyclopedia4010008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010008","url":null,"abstract":"In recent decades, important modifications have been introduced in zoos in order to guarantee the welfare of captive wild animals. Thus, many of these species are housed in enclosures with access to vegetation, where they can enjoy habitats close to those in their natural surroundings, interact with the environment, etc. These habitats present beneficial conditions for some species of parasites to survive and spread. This is a very similar problem to that affecting livestock, and the same solution, based on deworming, is currently being applied. However, the free-living stages of certain parasites that develop in the soil are responsible for high rates of ground contamination throughout the year, so that animals become infected soon after successful deworming, resulting in chemical parasiticides being frequently administered. Preventive measures are seldom considered, which worsens the situation. This entry summarizes the usefulness of the dissemination of certain saprophytic filamentous fungi with proven antagonism against some of the parasites.","PeriodicalId":72905,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia","volume":"16 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139383044","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
EncyclopediaPub Date : 2024-01-02DOI: 10.3390/encyclopedia4010007
Nacim Barache, Y. Belguesmia, Beatriz Martinez, Bruce S. Seal, D. Drider
{"title":"Bacteriocins and Bacteriophages as Dual Biological Players for Food Safety Applications","authors":"Nacim Barache, Y. Belguesmia, Beatriz Martinez, Bruce S. Seal, D. Drider","doi":"10.3390/encyclopedia4010007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010007","url":null,"abstract":"The development of new techniques for the control of pathogenic microorganisms during food production and for the prevention of spoilage are needed to reduce or replace chemical preservatives. This is due to the trend that consumers are increasingly questioning the use of chemical preservatives because of the many health concerns. Because of this issue, bacteriocins and bacteriophages are increasingly viewed as safe natural preservatives with a long history of various applications during food production and preservation. This minireview considers applications of these two antimicrobials, highlights their mode of action, lists their advantages and, when necessary, their limitations. It also reports recent advances in the use of bacteriophages and bacteriocins either alone or in combination in different food matrices. The incentives and effectiveness offered by these antimicrobials in the field of biopreservation are considered for future applications during food production and preservation.","PeriodicalId":72905,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia","volume":"95 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139390457","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
EncyclopediaPub Date : 2023-12-31DOI: 10.3390/encyclopedia4010006
Shelby L. Smith, Margaret Dawson-Amoah, Tong Tong, Nicolas Pardo, Elizabeth Ann Alonso-Morris, Adam Kho
{"title":"Public School Choice Options in the United States","authors":"Shelby L. Smith, Margaret Dawson-Amoah, Tong Tong, Nicolas Pardo, Elizabeth Ann Alonso-Morris, Adam Kho","doi":"10.3390/encyclopedia4010006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010006","url":null,"abstract":"Under the structure of compulsory education, students in the United States are required to attend school until at least 16 years of age, which can be done at a variety of educational institutions, both public and private. Amongst public schools, students are each assigned a neighborhood school but also frequently have the option to attend a choice school. While the purpose of neighborhood schools is to provide a guaranteed educational option that accommodates most students, choice schools serve varied purposes that accommodate specific learning styles and societal goals. Four types of publicly funded choice schools are magnet, charter, alternative, and virtual schools. While each was established to serve a specific societal goal, their purposes have shifted over time and have produced varied student outcomes, both academic and non-academic.","PeriodicalId":72905,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia","volume":"60 12","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-12-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139130782","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
EncyclopediaPub Date : 2023-12-30DOI: 10.3390/encyclopedia4010005
Margaret Dawson-Amoah, Shelby L. Smith, Desiree O’Neal, Isabel Clay, Elizabeth Ann Alonso-Morris, Adam Kho
{"title":"Understanding the Education Policymaking Process in the United States","authors":"Margaret Dawson-Amoah, Shelby L. Smith, Desiree O’Neal, Isabel Clay, Elizabeth Ann Alonso-Morris, Adam Kho","doi":"10.3390/encyclopedia4010005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010005","url":null,"abstract":"Considering the broad implications of education policy, it is important to understand the various facets of the education policymaking process. There are different stages of the process (i.e., issue definition, policy adoption, implementation, and evaluation) which, at times, can be difficult to comprehend when considering the competing goals of education and multiple stakeholders. Understanding the process can also be difficult due to the historical and contemporary influences of power and racism at play within and outside of society’s educational landscape—especially within the United States context. The process is highlighted as an iterative one which provides room for adjustments and changes across different contexts. By navigating the complex landscape of education policymaking, one can be better equipped to understand the intricacies of policymaking and its transformative capacity.","PeriodicalId":72905,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia","volume":" 24","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-12-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139137435","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
EncyclopediaPub Date : 2023-12-25DOI: 10.3390/encyclopedia4010003
L. Barsanti, P. Gualtieri
{"title":"Biophysics and Quantum Limitation of Photoreceptive Processes","authors":"L. Barsanti, P. Gualtieri","doi":"10.3390/encyclopedia4010003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010003","url":null,"abstract":"This entry paper is an attempt to explain how the discrete nature of light (energy discreteness in the form of photons) constrains the light detection process all along the evolutionary path, in the not-fully-understood photoreceptive systems of unicellular microorganisms (nonimaging systems) and in the complex and well-known visual system of higher organisms (imaging systems). All these systems are perfect examples of the interplay between physics and biology, i.e., they are the perfect topic of research for biophysicists. The paper describes how photoreceptive and visual systems achieve the goal of photon counting, which information is conveyed by a finite number of photons, and which noise factors limit light-detecting processes.","PeriodicalId":72905,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia","volume":"23 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-12-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139157848","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
EncyclopediaPub Date : 2023-12-22DOI: 10.3390/encyclopedia4010002
Giulia Tripodi, Giuseppe Ruta
{"title":"Maxwell’s Early Unitary View of Electricity and Fluid Mechanics","authors":"Giulia Tripodi, Giuseppe Ruta","doi":"10.3390/encyclopedia4010002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010002","url":null,"abstract":"In young Maxwell’s eyes, electricity, magnetism and fluid mechanics present analogies that let the first be mathematically grasped in a unitary way similarly to the latter. This entry sketches the first steps of James Clerk Maxwell’s unitary view of electromagnetism and fluid mechanics, with long-lasting effects on understanding the physical world. In his very first paper on the subject, Maxwell interpreted Faraday’s concept of lines of force of both electricity and magnetism as filaments of a flowing fluid. That is, Maxwell suggested to unify the previously distinct fields of electricity and magnetism, considering them as different aspects of the same entity, the ‘electromagnetic field’, which is mathematically described by four partial differential equations. In the literature there are several comprehensive works on Maxwell’s mature exposition of his theory; however, the aim of this entry contribution is rather more limited. Indeed, it is restricted to examining the contributions of Maxwell’s first paper towards developing the idea of electric current as the motion of an incompressible fluid. Thus, this entry highlights the strong connections of Maxwell’s epistemological view with the ‘mechanistic’ approach of the time to every aspect of physical phenomenology. For this purpose, this entry mentions some historical context surrounding the emergence of Maxwell’s innovative concepts.","PeriodicalId":72905,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia","volume":"53 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-12-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138946214","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
EncyclopediaPub Date : 2023-12-20DOI: 10.3390/encyclopedia4010001
Fátima Alves, Diogo Guedes Vidal
{"title":"Plural Nature(s): An Overview of Their Sociocultural Construction","authors":"Fátima Alves, Diogo Guedes Vidal","doi":"10.3390/encyclopedia4010001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010001","url":null,"abstract":"The social construction of nature aims to emphasise that the concept of nature has multiple meanings that vary in different socio-cultural contexts. This underlines the multiple ways in which both structures and individuals understand, explain, and engage with nature and the environment. Consequently, nature and cultures/societies are not separate entities, but are intertwined in complex and interdependent relationships. Therefore, nature is the result of human perceptions and social practices. The way we interact with, perceive, interpret, and value nature is influenced by a given society’s history and sociocultural factors. This intimate relationship is closely linked to power–knowledge and influence relations. Those with more power can impose a particular vision of, and relationship with, nature, resulting in inequalities and potentially harmful relations that can explain the environmental degradation that the contemporary world faces globally, despite its expression in particular contexts, thus configuring plural natures.","PeriodicalId":72905,"journal":{"name":"Encyclopedia","volume":"275 ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-12-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139170706","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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