Forum of NutritionPub Date : 2010-01-01Epub Date: 2009-11-27DOI: 10.1159/000264395
Wolfgang Langhans
{"title":"The enterocyte as an energy flow sensor in the control of eating.","authors":"Wolfgang Langhans","doi":"10.1159/000264395","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000264395","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Fuel monitoring in the liver or hepatic portal area was historically implicated in the control of eating. According to this view, a common denominator of nutrient metabolism such as the intracellular ATP/ADP ratio was supposed to modulate eating through changes in hepatic vagal afferent signaling. More recently, this hypothesis has been questioned because hepatic parenchymal vagal afferent innervation is scarce and because experimentally induced changes in hepatic fatty acid oxidation often failed to produce changes in eating. Accumulating evidence suggests that small intestinal enterocytes rather than hepatocytes may serve as energy flow sensors in the control of eating. These recent developments are discussed here and an outline is given of the challenges of this promising new concept.</p>","PeriodicalId":55148,"journal":{"name":"Forum of Nutrition","volume":"63 ","pages":"75-84"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000264395","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"28544522","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Forum of NutritionPub Date : 2010-01-01Epub Date: 2009-11-27DOI: 10.1159/000264396
Sebastien G Bouret
{"title":"Development of hypothalamic neural networks controlling appetite.","authors":"Sebastien G Bouret","doi":"10.1159/000264396","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000264396","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The hypothalamus plays an essential role in controlling appetite during adult life. It undergoes tremendous growth beginning early in gestation and continuing during the postnatal period. During this developmental period, a variety of processes shape the hypothalamic nuclei involved in the control of eating. These include the birth of new cells that populate these areas (neurogenesis), the migration of these cells to their final destinations, selective neuronal death, and, finally, the development of functional neural connections. Each of these developmental processes represents an important period of vulnerability during which alterations of the pre- (intrauterine) and early postnatal environments may have long-term and potentially irreversible consequences on hypothalamic development and function. Metabolic hormones, including the adipocyte-derived hormone leptin, have recently emerged as likely mediators of the environmental nutrient-sensing apparatus that directs hypothalamic programming.</p>","PeriodicalId":55148,"journal":{"name":"Forum of Nutrition","volume":"63 ","pages":"84-93"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000264396","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"28544523","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Forum of NutritionPub Date : 2010-01-01Epub Date: 2009-11-27DOI: 10.1159/000264407
Marion M Hetherington, Joanne E Cecil
{"title":"Gene-environment interactions in obesity.","authors":"Marion M Hetherington, Joanne E Cecil","doi":"10.1159/000264407","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000264407","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Obesity is a global and growing problem. The detrimental health consequences of obesity are significant and include co-morbidities such as diabetes, cancer and coronary heart disease. The marked rise in obesity observed over the last three decades suggests that behavioural and environmental factors underpin the chronic mismatch between energy intake and energy expenditure. However, not all individuals become obese, suggesting that there is considerable variation in responsiveness to 'obesogenic' environments. Some individuals defend easily against a propensity to accumulate fat mass and become overweight whilst others are predisposed to gain weight, possibly as a function of genotype. The genetic contribution to obesity is well established. Common obesity is polygenic, involving complex gene-gene and gene-environment interactions, and it is these interactions that produce the multi-factorial obese phenotypes. Candidate gene variants for polygenic obesity appear to disrupt pathways involved in the regulation of energy intake and expenditure and include adrenergic receptors, uncoupling proteins, PPARG, POMC, MC4R and a set of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the FTO locus. Notably, the FTO gene is the most robust gene for common obesity characterised to date, and recent data shows that the FTO locus seems to confer risk of obesity through increasing energy intake and reduced satiety. Gene variants involved in pathways regulating addiction and reward behaviours may also play a role in predisposition to obesity. Understanding the routes through which the genotype is expressed will ultimately provide opportunities for developing strategies to intervene, as the interaction between genotype and environment is potentially modifiable through behaviour change.</p>","PeriodicalId":55148,"journal":{"name":"Forum of Nutrition","volume":"63 ","pages":"195-203"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000264407","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"28543823","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Forum of NutritionPub Date : 2010-01-01Epub Date: 2009-11-27DOI: 10.1159/000264402
Gary J Schwartz
{"title":"Brainstem integrative function in the central nervous system control of food intake.","authors":"Gary J Schwartz","doi":"10.1159/000264402","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000264402","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The caudal brainstem lies at a critical nexus in the neural hierarchy that helps determine the negative feedback control of ingestion. It is the first central nervous system site that receives neural input from vagal and nonvagal visceral afferents that convey not only meal-related signals from postoral sites reflecting chemical, mechanical and nutrient properties of ingested foods, but also responses to nutrient stimulated peptides and neurotransmitters via extrinsic gut afferent receptors. In addition, the circumventricular area postrema (AP) affords the caudal brainstem access to circulating factors that are released during a meal, as well as to adiposity hormones that reflect the availability of stored nutrients. Brainstem neurons themselves express eating modulatory neuropeptides as well as their cognate receptors, raising the possibility that local ligand-receptor interactions contribute to the neural basis of eating behavior. Finally, forebrain hypothalamic projections extend to brainstem neurons that also respond to humoral and meal-related post-oral signals from peripheral gut afferents, providing critical descending influences in the negative feedback control of food intake [1]. This article characterizes recent advances in our understanding of how peripheral, brainstem-intrinsic and descending forebrain influences may converge in the caudal brainstem to reduce food intake, with a focus on their roles in the control of meal size.</p>","PeriodicalId":55148,"journal":{"name":"Forum of Nutrition","volume":"63 ","pages":"141-151"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000264402","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"28543819","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Forum of NutritionPub Date : 2010-01-01Epub Date: 2009-11-27DOI: 10.1159/000264398
William A Banks
{"title":"Blood-brain barrier as a regulatory interface.","authors":"William A Banks","doi":"10.1159/000264398","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000264398","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an important component of the communication network that connects the central nervous system and peripheral tissues in the control of feeding-related behaviors. Specifically, the BBB acts as an interface that restricts and regulates the exchange of substances between the CNS and blood. Many of the eating-related peptides and regulatory proteins produced by peripheral tissues and with receptors in the brain have been found to cross the BBB. The consequences of BBB permeability to these substances can be viewed from various perspectives. Here, we briefly consider five views relating the BBB and eating. A view of physiologic integration emphasizes the BBB as a conduit that controls a humoral-dependent signaling between the CNS and peripheral tissues. A view of regulation emphasizes that the transporters for many of the eating-related hormones are themselves regulated by physiologic events. This means that blood-to-brain signaling across the BBB is state-dependent and adaptable to the needs of the organism. A view of pathologic dysfunction shows how dysregulation of BBB transporters can result in disease. Resistance to leptin caused by its decreased transport across the BBB in obesity is an example. An evolutionary view emphasizes how the role of the BBB in eating may have evolved and how adaptations to one set of eating conditions can result in maladaptations under other conditions. Finally, the implications of these views for drug development targeted at obesity or anorexia is explored. Overall, these views show the BBB is an integral part of the physiology of eating.</p>","PeriodicalId":55148,"journal":{"name":"Forum of Nutrition","volume":"63 ","pages":"102-110"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000264398","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"28544525","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Forum of NutritionPub Date : 2010-01-01Epub Date: 2009-11-27DOI: 10.1159/000264393
Bettina Wölnerhanssen, Christoph Beglinger
{"title":"Therapeutic potential of gut peptides.","authors":"Bettina Wölnerhanssen, Christoph Beglinger","doi":"10.1159/000264393","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000264393","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>A great deal of research interest is directed toward understanding the control of appetite and regulation of metabolism. It seems as if an epidemic of obesity is sweeping the world, and type II diabetes (T2DM) is following in its wake. The regulation of energy homeostasis is an area that straddles neurobiology, classical endocrinology and metabolism. It is currently one of the most exciting and rapidly advancing topics in medical research, and is also one of the most frustrating areas. The availability of highly palatable, calorie-dense food, together with the low requirement for physical activity in our modern environment, are major factors contributing to the obesity epidemic. If energy intake exceeds energy use, the excess calories are stored as body fat. Knowledge of the homeostatic system that controls body weight has increased dramatically over the last years and has revealed new potential targets for the treatment of obesity. One therapeutic approach is the development of agents based on the gastrointestinal hormones that control food intake and appetite. This review discusses several gut hormones and ligands for their receptors as potential anti-obesity treatments.</p>","PeriodicalId":55148,"journal":{"name":"Forum of Nutrition","volume":"63 ","pages":"54-63"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000264393","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"28544520","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Forum of NutritionPub Date : 2010-01-01Epub Date: 2009-11-27DOI: 10.1159/000264406
E L Sullivan, K L Grove
{"title":"Metabolic imprinting in obesity.","authors":"E L Sullivan, K L Grove","doi":"10.1159/000264406","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000264406","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Increasing evidence indicates that early metabolic programming contributes to escalating obesity rates in children and adults. Metabolic imprinting is involved in the establishment of set points for physiologic and metabolic responses in adulthood. Evidence from epidemiological studies and animal models indicates that maternal health and nutritional status during gestation and lactation have long-term effects on central and peripheral systems that regulate energy balance in the developing offspring. Perinatal nutrition also impacts susceptibility to developing metabolic disorders and plays a role in programming body weight set points. The states of maternal energy status and health that are implicated in predisposing offspring to increased risk of developing obesity include maternal overnutrition, diabetes, and undernutrition. This chapter discusses the evidence from epidemiologic studies and animal models that each of these states of maternal energy status results in metabolic imprinting of obesity in offspring. Also, the potential molecular mediators of metabolic imprinting of obesity by maternal energy status including glucose, insulin, leptin, inflammatory cytokines and epigenetic mechanisms are considered.</p>","PeriodicalId":55148,"journal":{"name":"Forum of Nutrition","volume":"63 ","pages":"186-194"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000264406","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"28543769","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Forum of NutritionPub Date : 2010-01-01Epub Date: 2009-11-27DOI: 10.1159/000264403
Marianne T Neary, Rachel L Batterham
{"title":"Gaining new insights into food reward with functional neuroimaging.","authors":"Marianne T Neary, Rachel L Batterham","doi":"10.1159/000264403","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000264403","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The notion that eating is intimately related to feelings of pleasure is not new. Indeed, in an environment characterised by many varied and palatable foods, hedonistic drives are likely to play a greater role in modulating food intake than homeostatic ones. Until recently however, a neurobiological account of the rewarding properties of food was lacking. The ability to reveal functional brain activity has been made possible with the advent of functional neuroimaging techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), positron emission tomography (PET) and most recently, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Neuroimaging studies in fed and fasted, lean and obese, normal and pathological states have revealed variations in food-related reward processing. Eating is a multi-sensory experience and understanding the precise mechanisms by which food modulates reward circuits will be important in understanding the aetiology of obesity and eating disorders. Here we review the development of functional neuroimaging as a research tool and recent neuroimaging studies relating to food reward. In particular, we evaluate the ability of leptin and the gut hormones peptide YY3-36 and ghrelin to modulate activity in reward-related brain regions. Finally, we discuss the potential to use such information to guide development of pharmaceuticals, functional foods and life-style modifications.</p>","PeriodicalId":55148,"journal":{"name":"Forum of Nutrition","volume":"63 ","pages":"152-163"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000264403","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"28543820","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Forum of NutritionPub Date : 2010-01-01Epub Date: 2009-11-27DOI: 10.1159/000264397
Timothy H Moran
{"title":"Hypothalamic nutrient sensing and energy balance.","authors":"Timothy H Moran","doi":"10.1159/000264397","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000264397","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Hypothalamic neurons have the capacity to sense and alter their activity in response to fluctuations in local nutrient concentrations. Alterations in glucose, fatty acid and amino acid concentrations have all been demonstrated to affect neuronal excitability and/or intracellular signaling pathways. The degree to which such changes in nutrient availability have the capacity to modify energy balance varies across nutrient type. The underlying mechanisms through which various nutrients affect food intake and overall energy balance involve both specific and shared neuronal substrates.</p>","PeriodicalId":55148,"journal":{"name":"Forum of Nutrition","volume":"63 ","pages":"94-101"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000264397","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"28544524","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Forum of NutritionPub Date : 2010-01-01Epub Date: 2009-11-27DOI: 10.1159/000264401
James E Blevins, Denis G Baskin
{"title":"Hypothalamic-brainstem circuits controlling eating.","authors":"James E Blevins, Denis G Baskin","doi":"10.1159/000264401","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1159/000264401","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>It is now axiomatic that neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus have a primary role in responding to changes in circulating levels of leptin and transmitting signals to downstream circuits that influence eating and energy expenditure. Signals generated from the gastrointestinal tract during meals reach the brainstem, via the vagus nerve and other routes, and impinge on neural circuits that influence the timing and size of meals and amount of food consumed. One of the mechanisms by which leptin exerts its anorexic effects is by increasing the effectiveness of intestinal signals that cause satiation during a meal. It is clear that the effects of gut satiation signals such as CCK can be amplified by leptin acting in the CNS, and in the arcuate nucleus in particular. The present article describes the state of our knowledge about specific neural circuits between the hypothalamus and brainstem that play a role in the interaction of leptin and meal-control signals to control food intake.</p>","PeriodicalId":55148,"journal":{"name":"Forum of Nutrition","volume":"63 ","pages":"133-140"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1159/000264401","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"28543818","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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