Taiwu Pang , Zheming Ye , Zhao Zhang , Cheqing Jin
{"title":"Fault tolerance testing and tuning for consortium blockchain","authors":"Taiwu Pang , Zheming Ye , Zhao Zhang , Cheqing Jin","doi":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100267","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100267","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>While the potential applications of the consortium blockchain are becoming increasingly evident, the fault tolerance of systems in complex and changeable real environments has become an increasingly important factor. In recent years, many blockchain-oriented fault tolerance testing tools have been proposed. However, the selected fault sets cannot cover all kinds of problems that the consortium blockchain may encounter in real scenarios. Moreover, a rationality analysis of test results is often missing from these tools. In addition, it is also worth considering how to optimize system performance in the fault continuous stage. In this paper, we propose a general full-stack fault injection platform that can support the orderly injection of different kinds of Byzantine and non-Byzantine failures in a distributed scenario. Regarding the unclear underlying principles affecting system performance due to faults, we conduct an attribution analysis of various faults' influences on the consortium blockchain. Based on conclusions drawn form the attribution analysis, we design and implement the test-driven optimization strategy. The experimental results show that the optimization strategy can shorten the system average delay to less than one-third of that before optimization by reducing the throughput by about 15% in most fault scenarios.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":53141,"journal":{"name":"Blockchain-Research and Applications","volume":"6 2","pages":"Article 100267"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144470083","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Mostafa Chegenizadeh , Nickolay Larionov , Sina Rafati Niya , Yury Yanovich , Claudio J. Tessone
{"title":"Cardano shared send transactions untangling in numbers","authors":"Mostafa Chegenizadeh , Nickolay Larionov , Sina Rafati Niya , Yury Yanovich , Claudio J. Tessone","doi":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100269","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100269","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In this paper, we analyze shared send mixers (SSMs) within Cardano's extended unspent transaction output (EUTXO) model, presenting significant contributions to the understanding of UTXO-based blockchains. Firstly, we define the EUTXO SSM untangling problem and propose an algorithm to address it, along with providing an open-source implementation of the solution. Utilizing real transaction examples, we formulate and solve this problem in a systematic manner, shedding light on the intricacies of coin circulation within the Cardano blockchain. Through our analysis, we reveal some insights into the usage of SSMs, including statistics on their frequency and effectiveness in untangling transactions. With this method, our findings show that 11% of transactions seem to involve SSMs, 83% of which enable unique untangling. Moreover, we discuss the potential application of our algorithm in enhancing the address clustering results of transaction-level heuristics. Overall, our work contributes to a deeper understanding of transactional dynamics within UTXO cryptocurrencies, particularly within the context of Cardano's EUTXO model.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":53141,"journal":{"name":"Blockchain-Research and Applications","volume":"6 2","pages":"Article 100269"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144470085","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Unlocking potential of open source model training in decentralized federated learning environment","authors":"Ekaterina Pavlova , Grigorii Melnikov , Yury Yanovich , Alexey Frolov","doi":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100264","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100264","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is rapidly evolving, creating a demand for sophisticated models that rely on substantial data and computational resources for training. However, the high costs associated with training these models have limited accessibility, leading to concerns about transparency, biases, and hidden agendas within AI systems. As AI becomes more integrated into governmental services and the pursuit of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) advances, the necessity for transparent and reliable AI models becomes increasingly critical. Decentralized Federated Learning (DFL) offers decentralized approaches to model training while safeguarding data privacy and ensuring resilience against adversarial participants. Nonetheless, the guarantees provided are not absolute, and even open-weight AI models do not qualify as truly open source. This paper suggests using blockchain technology, smart contracts, and publicly verifiable secret sharing in DFL environments to bolster trust, cooperation, and transparency in model training processes. Our numerical experiments illustrate that the overhead required to offer robust assurances to all peers regarding the correctness of the training process is relatively small. By incorporating these tools, participants can trust that trained models adhere to specified procedures, addressing accountability issues within AI systems and promoting the development of more ethical and dependable applications of AI.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":53141,"journal":{"name":"Blockchain-Research and Applications","volume":"6 2","pages":"Article 100264"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144298441","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Zening Zhao , Jinsong Wang , Miao Yang , Haitao Wang
{"title":"An efficient Bitcoin network topology discovery algorithm for dynamic display","authors":"Zening Zhao , Jinsong Wang , Miao Yang , Haitao Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100260","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100260","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Bitcoin network comprises numerous nodes, necessitating users to invest significant network requests and time in comprehending its network topology. In this paper, we propose a Bitcoin network topology discovery algorithm that uses lightweight probe nodes to facilitate rapid transmission of network protocols. Building upon this, we introduce a node layer clustering algorithm based on filtering stable network nodes, enabling parallel discovery of the network topology. Additionally, we present an adaptive method for dynamically displaying the layered structure of the network topology. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed method reduces communication overhead by approximately 72.16% when achieving a 95% similarity in network topology. Furthermore, the algorithm is applicable for discovering the network topology in other blockchain networks with similar structures.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":53141,"journal":{"name":"Blockchain-Research and Applications","volume":"6 2","pages":"Article 100260"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144307968","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Xuanming Liu , Jiawen Zhang , Yinghao Wang , Xinpeng Yang , Xiaohu Yang
{"title":"SmartZKCP: Towards practical data exchange marketplace against active attacks","authors":"Xuanming Liu , Jiawen Zhang , Yinghao Wang , Xinpeng Yang , Xiaohu Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100272","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100272","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The trading of data is becoming increasingly important as it holds substantial value. A blockchain-based data marketplace can provide a secure and transparent platform for data exchange. To facilitate this, developing a fair data exchange protocol for digital goods has garnered considerable attention in recent decades. The Zero Knowledge Contingent Payment (ZKCP) protocol enables trustless fair exchanges with the aid of blockchain and zero-knowledge proofs. However, applying this protocol in a practical data marketplace is not trivial.</div><div>In this paper, several potential attacks are identified when applying the ZKCP protocol in a practical public data marketplace. To address these issues, we propose SmartZKCP, an enhanced solution that offers improved security measures and increased performance. The protocol is formalized to ensure fairness and secure against potential attacks. Moreover, SmartZKCP offers efficiency optimizations and minimized communication costs. Evaluation results show that SmartZKCP is both practical and efficient, making it applicable in a data exchange marketplace.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":53141,"journal":{"name":"Blockchain-Research and Applications","volume":"6 2","pages":"Article 100272"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144270707","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Yuan Zhou , Yaoyao Zhang , Qinglin Yang , Yuan Liu , Chunming Rong , Zhihong Tian
{"title":"A blockchain based efficient incentive mechanism in tripartite cyber threat intelligence service marketplace","authors":"Yuan Zhou , Yaoyao Zhang , Qinglin Yang , Yuan Liu , Chunming Rong , Zhihong Tian","doi":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100263","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100263","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Cyber Threat Intelligence (CTI) marketplace is an emerging platform for CTI service requesters to countermeasure advanced cyber attacks, where CTI service providers are employed on payment. To create a trustworthy CTI marketplace environment, consortium-blockchain-based CTI service platforms have been widely proposed, where the blockchain system becomes the third role, crucially impacting the CTI service quality. How to sustainably promote CTI service quality in this tripartite marketplace is a challenging issue, which has not been well investigated in the literature. In this study, we propose a two-stage tripartite dynamic game-model-based incentive mechanism, where the participation incentives of the three parties are promoted under the constraints of Individual Rationality (IR) and Incentive Compatibility (IC). The sustainability of CTI service is quantitatively formalized through the CTI market demand, which impacts the future profits of the three parties. The Nash equilibrium of the proposed incentive mechanism is solved, where the CTI requester offers an optimal price to achieve effective defense against cyber attacks, and the blockchain platform and CTI service providers collaboratively contribute high-quality CTI services. Empirical experimental results show that the higher the quality of CTI services provided in the marketplace, the greater the market demand for CTI, resulting in a sustainable CTI marketplace.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":53141,"journal":{"name":"Blockchain-Research and Applications","volume":"6 2","pages":"Article 100263"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144307966","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"DeFi risk assessment: MakerDAO loan portfolio case","authors":"Ignat Melnikov , Irina Lebedeva , Artem Petrov , Yury Yanovich","doi":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100259","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100259","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Decentralized finance (DeFi) is a rapidly evolving blockchain technology that offers a new perspective on financial services through Web3 applications. DeFi offers developers the flexibility to create financial services using smart contracts, leading to a lack of standardized protocols and challenges in applying traditional finance models for risk assessment, especially in the early stages of adoption. The Maker protocol is a prominent DeFi platform known for its diverse functionalities, including loan services. This study focuses on analyzing the risk associated with Maker's loan portfolio by developing a risk model based on multiple Brownian motions and passage levels, with Brownian motions representing different collateral types and passage levels representing users' collateralization ratios. Through numerical experiments using artificial and real data, we evaluate the model's effectiveness in assessing risk within the loan portfolio. While our findings demonstrate the model's potential for assessing risk within a single DeFi project, it is important to acknowledge that the model's assumptions may not be fully applicable to real-world data. This research underscores the importance of developing project-specific risk assessment models for individual DeFi projects and encourages further exploration of other DeFi protocols.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":53141,"journal":{"name":"Blockchain-Research and Applications","volume":"6 2","pages":"Article 100259"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144190436","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Atomic and privacy-preserving cyclic cross-chain protocol based on chameleon hash function","authors":"Mengyan Li, Maoning Wang, Meijiao Duan","doi":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100262","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100262","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Blockchain-based digital assets have increasingly emerged in recent years, necessitating cross-chain swaps. Hash Time-Lock Contract (HTLC) is a widely used protocol for such swaps; however, simple hash time locks can allow attackers to analyze transaction paths, thereby causing privacy breaches and financial loss to users in some sensitive scenarios. To prevent payment path leakage, a privacy-preserving cyclic cross-chain protocol is proposed herein. This protocol primarily uses the Chameleon Hash (CH) protocol to obscure the correlation between users in the path, ensuring the privacy of cross-chain swaps. The protocol is divided into pre-swap, commit, and decommit phases. The pre-swap phase is firstly executed to determine the swap order. Then, users ensure atomicity via serial asset locking in the commit phase, and each receiver obtains swap assets from the corresponding sender via CH collision in the decommit phase. The security proof under the Universally Composable (UC) system demonstrates the correctness and usability of the protocol. In summary, the entire protocol ensures the atomicity and privacy of cross-chain swaps, providing a new principle and method to solve the privacy leakage problem caused by transaction path analysis.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":53141,"journal":{"name":"Blockchain-Research and Applications","volume":"6 2","pages":"Article 100262"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144307954","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Graph neural network-based transaction link prediction method for public blockchain in heterogeneous information networks","authors":"Zening Zhao , Jinsong Wang , Jiajia Wei","doi":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100265","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100265","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Public blockchain has outstanding performance in transaction privacy protection because of its anonymity. The data openness brings feasibility to transaction behavior analysis. At present, the transaction data of the public chain are huge, including complex trading objects and relationships. It is difficult to extract attributes and predict transaction behavior by traditional methods. To solve these problems, we extract transaction features to construct an Ethereum transaction heterogeneous information network (HIN) and propose a graph neural network (GNN)-based transaction prediction method for public blockchains in HINs, which can divide the network into subgraphs according to connectivity and increase the accuracy of the prediction results of transaction behavior. Experiments show that the execution time consumption of the proposed transaction subgraph division method is reduced by 70.61% on average compared with that of the search method. The accuracy of the proposed behavior prediction method also improves compared with that of the traditional random walk method, with an average accuracy of 83.82%.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":53141,"journal":{"name":"Blockchain-Research and Applications","volume":"6 2","pages":"Article 100265"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144307967","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Kai Ma , Jintao Huang , Ningyu He , Zhuo Wang , Haoyu Wang
{"title":"SoK: On the security of non-fungible tokens","authors":"Kai Ma , Jintao Huang , Ningyu He , Zhuo Wang , Haoyu Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100268","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100268","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) drive the prosperity of the Web3 ecosystem. By May 2024, the total market value of NFT projects reached approximately $69 billion. Accompanying the success of NFTs are various security issues, i.e., attacks and scams are prevalent in the ecosystem. While NFTs have attracted significant attention from both industry and academia, there is a lack of understanding of the kinds of NFT security issues. The discovery, in-depth analysis, and systematic categorization of these security issues are of significant importance for the prosperous development of the NFT ecosystem. To fill this gap, we perform a systematic literature review related to NFT security and identify 176 incidents from 248 security reports and 35 academic papers until May 1st, 2024. Through manual analysis of the compiled security incidents, we classify them into 12 major categories. Then, we explore potential solutions and mitigation strategies. Drawing from these analyses, we establish the first NFT security reference frame. In addition, we extract the characteristics of NFT security issues, i.e., the prevalence, severity, and intractability. We highlight the gap between industry and academia for NFT security and provide further research directions for the community. This paper, as the first Systematization of Knowledge (SoK) of NFT security, systematically explores security issues within the NFT ecosystem, shedding light on their root causes, real-world attacks, and potential ways to address them. Our findings will contribute to future research on NFT security.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":53141,"journal":{"name":"Blockchain-Research and Applications","volume":"6 2","pages":"Article 100268"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144470084","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}