Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases最新文献

{"title":"A review on <i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i> infections in women from Africa.","authors":"Nonkululeko Mabaso,&nbsp;Nathlee S Abbai","doi":"10.4102/sajid.v36i1.254","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v36i1.254","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Trichomoniasis is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI) with an estimated annual incidence of 276.4 million cases globally and about 30 million cases in sub-Saharan Africa. Trichomoniasis has been found to be associated with various health complications including pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), significant pregnancy complications, cervical cancer, prostatitis, infertility and the acquisition of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).</p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>Despite being a highly prevalent infection in the African continent, there is no review article published that solely focusses on <i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i> (<i>T. vaginalis</i>) infections in women from Africa. This review aims to fill this gap in the literature.</p><p><strong>Method: </strong>An electronic search of online databases was used to identify and extract relevant research articles related to the epidemiology, health complications and treatment associated with <i>T. vaginalis</i> in women from Africa.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Within the African continent, South Africa has reported the highest prevalence rate for this infection. A combination of sociodemographic, behavioural and biological factors has been shown to be associated with infection. <i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i> infection is associated with the acquisition of HIV, cervical cancer and PIDs in various female populations across the continent. Emerging patterns of resistance to metronidazole have been reported in women from South Africa. Currently, there is no effective vaccine against this pathogen despite efforts at vaccine development.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Based on the high prevalence and health consequences associated with <i>T. vaginalis</i>, there is a need for improved screening programmes that will lead to early diagnosis, detection of asymptomatic infections and effective treatment regimens.</p>","PeriodicalId":44007,"journal":{"name":"Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases","volume":"36 1","pages":"254"},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2021-06-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8377975/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39386714","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"'<i>Mycoplasma hominis</i> does not share common risk factors with other genital pathogens': Findings from a South African pregnant cohort.","authors":"Meleshni Naicker,&nbsp;Fazana Dessai,&nbsp;Ravesh Singh,&nbsp;Nireshni Mitchev,&nbsp;Partson Tinarwo,&nbsp;Nathlee S Abbai","doi":"10.4102/sajid.v36i1.207","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v36i1.207","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>The role of <i>Mycoplasma hominis</i> (<i>M. hominis</i>) as a genital tract pathogen was still debatable. This study identified the risk factors associated with the prevalence of <i>M. hominis</i> in South African pregnant women.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>This was a cross-sectional analysis of <i>n</i> = 221 prenatal patients attending a Durban hospital during November 2017 to April 2018. <i>M. hominis</i> was detected from urine samples using the quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The population characteristics were described using frequencies stratified by the infection status of <i>M. hominis.</i> In addition, a univariate analysis was used to assess the relationship between each risk factor and infection status. The analysis further considered logistic regression to assess the influence of these risk factors univariately and in the presence of other factors. The coinfection rate between <i>M. hominis</i> and bacterial vaginosis (BV), <i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i> (<i>T. vaginalis</i>), <i>Mycoplasma genitalium (M. genitalium)</i> and <i>Candida</i> species was also determined. All the tests were conducted at 5% level of significance.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The prevalence of <i>M. hominis</i> in this study population was 48% (106/221). In the univariate analysis, factors significantly associated with <i>M. hominis</i> positivity included having past abnormal vaginal discharge (<i>p</i> = 0.037), having current abnormal vaginal discharge (<i>p</i> = 0.010) and a borderline significance (<i>p</i> = 0.052), which were noted for previous pre-term delivery. However, none of these factors were sustained in the multivariate analysis. There was a statistically significant association between <i>M. hominis</i> and BV positivity (<i>p</i> < 0.001). Similarly, <i>M. hominis</i> and <i>M. genitalium</i> positivity was significant (<i>p</i> = 0.006).</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>This study showed that <i>M. hominis</i> does not share common risk factors with known genital tract pathogens in a population of pregnant women and therefore cannot be considered a genital tract pathogen.</p>","PeriodicalId":44007,"journal":{"name":"Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases","volume":"36 1","pages":"207"},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2021-05-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8377787/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39404526","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The knowledge, attitudes and practices of doctors, pharmacists and nurses on antimicrobials, antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial stewardship in South Africa.","authors":"Reshma Balliram, Wilbert Sibanda, Sabiha Y Essack","doi":"10.4102/sajid.v36i1.262","DOIUrl":"10.4102/sajid.v36i1.262","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Sustained injudicious and indiscriminate use of antimicrobials has exerted selection pressure for developing antimicrobial resistance (AMR), requiring behaviour change from healthcare professionals (HCPs) based on their knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) on antimicrobials, AMR and antimicrobial stewardship (AMS).</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>A cross-sectional online questionnaire-based survey was conducted nationally amongst doctors, pharmacists and nurses from November 2017 to January 2018. The questionnaire comprised demographic information and KAP questions.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Respondents comprised of 1120 doctors, 744 pharmacists and 659 nurses. Antimicrobial resistance was considered a severe problem globally and nationally by majority of HCPs. Self-assessment of knowledge revealed gaps in understanding of antimicrobials, AMR and AMS. Confidence scores in prescribing by doctors, pharmacists and nurses were 57.82%, 32.88% and 45.28%, respectively. Doctors, 441 (45.2%) indicated no confidence in using combination therapy. Prescribing correctly showed a confidence level of 33.99% from 436 doctors, 41.88% from nine pharmacists and 35.23% from 107 nurses. Healthcare professionals (1600 [91.22%]) stated educational campaigns would combat AMR. Only 842 (40.13%) HCPs attended training on these topics and 1712 (81.60%) requesting more education and training.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>This is the first comparative survey on KAP of practising doctors, pharmacists and nurses in South Africa. Doctors had the highest knowledge score followed by nurses and pharmacists. Practice scores did not corroborate knowledge and the higher attitude scores. Gaps in KAP were evident. Healthcare professionals indicated the need for more education and training, thus requiring a review of pre-service and in-service education and training in addition to continued professional development programmes for practising HCPs.</p>","PeriodicalId":44007,"journal":{"name":"Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases","volume":"36 1","pages":"262"},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2021-04-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8378097/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39386715","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Obesity and its implications for COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa.","authors":"Fiona A van Vollenstee,&nbsp;Maria-Teresa van der Merwe","doi":"10.4102/sajid.v36i1.228","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v36i1.228","url":null,"abstract":"Obesity is a non-communicable disease associated with variety of a comorbidities, which includes: (1) metabolic diseases: type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), metabolic associated fatty liver disease (non-alcoholic fatty liver disease [NAFLD] or non-alcoholic steatohepatitis [NASH]), dyslipidaemia and chronic inflammation, (2) respiratory diseases: chronic hypoventilation, sleep apnoea, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and (3) cardiovascular diseases: hypertension, pulmonary embolism and coronary heart disease.2,3,4,5 Age < 60 years and co-morbidities linked to obesity are powerful predictors of hospitalisation length of stay, intensive care unit (ICU) admissions, higher morbidity and disease progression because of acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (COVID-19), despite correcting for comorbidities.3,4,5,6","PeriodicalId":44007,"journal":{"name":"Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases","volume":"36 1","pages":"228"},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2021-04-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8111705/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39145632","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The BinaxNOW pneumococcal antigen test: An adjunct for diagnosis of pneumococcal bacteraemia.","authors":"Hafsah D Tootla,&nbsp;Colleen Bamford,&nbsp;Chad M Centner,&nbsp;Clinton Moodley","doi":"10.4102/sajid.v36i1.244","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v36i1.244","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Culture remains the diagnostic standard for <i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i> bacteraemia but is limited by time to identification, prior antibiotics and bacterial autolysis. Culture-independent methods for detecting <i>S. pneumoniae</i> include PCR and antigen tests. We evaluated an antigen test on blood culture broth for the rapid detection of <i>S. pneumoniae</i> bacteraemia.</p><p><strong>Method: </strong>We collected 212 signal-positive blood cultures, with gram-positive cocci in pairs, chains or with uncertain morphology. The BinaxNOW <i>S. pneumoniae</i> urinary antigen test, Gram stain, culture and <i>lytA</i> PCR were performed on all samples. Diagnostic accuracy of the antigen test and Gram stain with gram-positive cocci in pairs were compared with culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the composite of culture and PCR.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong><i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i> was isolated in 26% of samples, 66% cultured other gram-positive organisms and 8% of samples had no growth. Sensitivity and negative predictive values of the antigen test were 100%, specificity and positive predictive values were 87% - 88% and 76% - 81%, but increased to 93% - 96% and 96% - 98% when applied to subsets with gram-positive cocci in pairs, or history compatible with respiratory illness or meningitis. Sensitivity (69% - 75%) and specificity (81%) of Gram stain (gram-positive cocci in pairs) were lower than the antigen test even when applied to the same subsets.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Accurate and rapid diagnosis of <i>S. pneumoniae</i> bacteraemia is challenging. Specificity of this antigen test is limited by cross-reactivity with other gram-positive organisms, but could be improved if Gram stain morphology and clinical history are available. The antigen test is a useful adjunct for rapid diagnosis of <i>S. pneumoniae</i> bacteraemia.</p>","PeriodicalId":44007,"journal":{"name":"Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases","volume":"36 1","pages":"244"},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2021-04-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8378051/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39386712","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Microbial contamination of the hands of healthcare providers in the operating theatre of a central hospital.","authors":"Kylesh D Pegu,&nbsp;Helen Perrie,&nbsp;Juan Scribante,&nbsp;Maria Fourtounas","doi":"10.4102/sajid.v36i1.221","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v36i1.221","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Effort is invested in maintaining the sterility of the operating field, but less attention is paid to potential healthcare associated infection (HAI) sources through patient contact with non-scrubbed healthcare providers (HCPs). A single microbiological assessment of hands can provide a good assessment of the potential dynamic transmission of microorganisms. The aim of this study was to identify and quantify the microbial growth on the hands of HCPs in the operating theatres of Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>A prospective, contextual and descriptive study design was followed. Seventy-five samples were collected using convenience sampling from an equal number of surgeons, anaesthetists and nurses. Specimens were taken using agar plates and underwent semi-quantitative analysis.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>All the hands of the HCPs displayed growth; 95% grew commensals and 64% grew pathogens. Eighteen commensal microorganisms and 21 pathological microorganisms were noted. Comparisons of commensal, pathological and combined levels of contamination among the three groups were not statistically significant (<i>p</i> = 0.061, <i>p</i> = 0.481, <i>p</i> = 0.236). No significant difference between the growth of combined microorganisms (<i>p</i> = 0.634) and pathological microorganisms (<i>p</i> = 0.499) among the groups. Surgeons had significantly more commensal growth (<i>p</i> = 0.041). There was no statistically significant difference between sexes (<i>p</i> = 0.290).</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>It was concerning that 100% of the hands of HCPs who were about to commence with the surgical list had microbial growth. These HCPs could have already been in contact with patients and equipment in the theatre environment.</p>","PeriodicalId":44007,"journal":{"name":"Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases","volume":"36 1","pages":"221"},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2021-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8378170/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39387815","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Treatment outcomes of Gene Xpert positive tuberculosis patients in KwaMashu Community Health Centre, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: A retrospective review.","authors":"Sarusha Pillay,&nbsp;Nombulelo P Magula","doi":"10.4102/sajid.v36i1.217","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v36i1.217","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>We sought to investigate the relationship between tuberculosis (TB) treatment outcomes and its predictors in the KwaMashu region in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). This area is currently a hotbed for TB and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co-infection.</p><p><strong>Method: </strong>A retrospective study design was adopted to characterise adult patients diagnosed with Gene Expert (GXP) positive pulmonary TB from 01 January 2016 to 31 December 2017. Tuberculosis treatment outcomes were assessed after two months and five months according to the standard World Health Organization (WHO) criteria. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to calculate the odds ratio (OR) of the possible determinants associated with unsuccessful treatment outcomes.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Amongst the 596 patients diagnosed, 57.4% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 53.3-61.4; 342 of 596) had successful treatment outcomes. Of these reported cases, 88.89% (85.1-92.0; 304 of 342) were cured. For the unsuccessful treatment outcomes, 52.4% (46.0-58.6; 133 of 254) patients were lost to follow-up, 20.9% (16.0-26.4; 53 of 254) failed treatment, 1.2% (0.2-3.4; 3 of 254) died and 25.6% (20.3-31.4; 65 of 254) of the patients could not be accounted for. Patients with unknown HIV status were more likely to have unsuccessful treatment outcomes (adjusted OR [aOR] = 4.94 [1.83-13.36]). Patients who had sputum conversion at 2 months (aOR = 1.94 [1.27-2.96]) were significantly more likely to exhibit unsuccessful treatment outcomes.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Treatment success rate was 57.4% which was below the target set by the WHO. This underscores the urgent need to strengthen treatment adherence strategies to improve outcomes, especially in high HIV burden settings.</p>","PeriodicalId":44007,"journal":{"name":"Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases","volume":"36 1","pages":"217"},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2021-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8378003/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39387814","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exudative pharyngitis and <i>Corynebacterium pseudodiphtheriticum</i>: A case report and review of the literature.","authors":"Kessendri Reddy,&nbsp;Sebastian Gericke,&nbsp;Helena Rabie,&nbsp;Colette Pienaar,&nbsp;Motlatji Maloba","doi":"10.4102/sajid.v36i1.225","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v36i1.225","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Corynebacterium pseudodiphtheriticum</i> is an established member of the normal flora of the respiratory tract. This organism is an emerging cause of respiratory tract infection, as well as infection of the skin and skin structures, urinary tract and other sterile sites. The syndrome of <i>C. pseudodiphtheriticum</i> exudative pharyngitis is a diagnostic challenge of particular relevance in recent times as this organism can be confused with <i>Corynebacterium diphtheriae</i> in the clinical setting and in the laboratory. We report a case of exudative pharyngitis, possibly due to <i>C. pseudodiphtheriticum</i>, in a 14-month old, incompletely vaccinated, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive infant and review the role of this organism in terms of its microbiological profile and identification, disease spectrum and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern.</p>","PeriodicalId":44007,"journal":{"name":"Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases","volume":"36 1","pages":"225"},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2021-03-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8377973/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39387817","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"COVID-19 and otorhinolaryngology: Returning to practice.","authors":"Shivesh Maharaj","doi":"10.4102/sajid.v36i1.256","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v36i1.256","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This article aims to focus on key points and provide an overview of the current knowledge of the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19); the increased susceptibility of otorhinolaryngologists to the virus; its effects and impact on the ENT practice; disruption of specialist clinic services; as well as associated risks in ENT surgical procedures. Mitigation strategies that can be employed to efficiently return to practice and ensuring the highest level of safety to both the patient and the otorhinolaryngologist is emphasised whilst simultaneously adapting to the new normal. Attention was given to understanding of the virus, its effect on the ENT discipline and practice, counter measures to mitigate and minimise risk to allow for continuation of ENT services once restrictions and lockdowns are progressively lifted. Otorhinolaryngological manifestations are common symptoms of COVID-19. Evidence suggests that the highest rates of nosocomial spread were seen amongst otorhinolaryngologists. The COVID-19 pandemic unexpectedly halted a majority of the otorhinolaryngology activities, which impacted service provision in the ENT practice. As the pandemic evolves, and with its duration unpredictable, this may necessitate a fundamental shift in the way otorhinolaryngology is practiced as there may be further global viral pandemics in future and the ENT fraternity has to now adapt to the new normal. Continued vigilance is imperative and strategies optimally implemented to ensure safe return to both ENT specialist clinic services and surgeries is vital. There are currently no uniform best-practice recommendations for otorhinolaryngology in the COVID-19 setting, although key strategies to prevent the virus spread have become evident to be able to effectively 'flatten the curve' of COVID-19 infections over time.</p>","PeriodicalId":44007,"journal":{"name":"Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases","volume":"36 1","pages":"256"},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2021-03-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8378039/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39386713","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Immunotherapy of COVID-19 with Bacille Calmette - Guerin: Where is the missing red herring?","authors":"Hari M Saxena","doi":"10.4102/sajid.v36i1.215","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v36i1.215","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) morbidity and mortality was found to be less severe in countries where Bacille Calmette - Guerin (BCG) vaccination of the population is carried out. Conjugating Purified Protein Derivative (PPD) onto tumour cells and injecting into BCG primed mice was found to enhance anti-tumour immune response. We had proposed earlier that <i>in vitro</i> activated autologous anti-tumour T-cells bearing Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) II on their surface, if pulsed with PPD and re-infused in a BCG - primed patient, can activate PPD - specific helper T-cells and the focused secretion of lymphokines like the IL-2 can selectively amplify the antitumor T-cell response by their proliferation and activation in a specific manner bypassing the suppression exerted by the anti-idiotypic and suppressor cells. The prime - boost strategy with the BCG-PPD system can also be applied to the immunoprophylaxis and immunotherapy of COVID-19. The autologous anti-Corona virus B and T lymphocytes can be activated <i>in vitro</i> by inactivated virus or mitogens like Concanavalin A to express MHC class II molecules on their surface and pulsed with PPD for carrier targeting <i>in vivo</i>. Such PPD - pulsed activated (MHC-II+ve) anti-viral lymphocytes if transfused back into a patient already vaccinated with BCG during childhood or primed with BCG during adulthood 2 weeks before transfusion, could lead to a high magnitude of selective <i>in vivo</i> amplification of specific anti-viral lymphocytes, which can mount adequate and appropriate immune response to get rid of the virus and cure the patient from COVID-19. Conjugating antigens to PPD and injecting into BCG primed humans may also be helpful for immunoprophylaxis against COVID-19. Thus, PPD may prove to be the red herring in the BCG therapy of COVID-19.</p>","PeriodicalId":44007,"journal":{"name":"Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases","volume":"36 1","pages":"215"},"PeriodicalIF":0.9,"publicationDate":"2021-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8378185/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39387813","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}