Parasitologists United Journal最新文献

{"title":"In vitro assessment of Schistosoma mansoni cercaricidal activities of Solanum nigrum and Callistemon citrinius leaves extracts and cercarial genetic changes by RAPD-PCR","authors":"G. Sadek, N. Harba, M. Faheem","doi":"10.21608/PUJ.2019.7468.1029","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21608/PUJ.2019.7468.1029","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract: Background: Schistosomiasis is contracted by exposure to fresh water containing cercariae that develop into adult worms after penetration of human skin. Interruption of schistosomiasis vital cycle by elimination of cercariae may enhance methods of transmission control. Objective: To evaluate the vitro effect of methanol extracts of Solanum nigrum ( S.nigrum) and callistemon citrinus (C. citrinus) leaves on Schistosoma mansoni cercarial genetic makeup by random amplification of polymorphic DNA-Polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR). Material and methods: The effect different concentrations of both plants extracts on cercarial morphology and mortality was observed with different lethal concentrations (LC). Also, assessment of DNA change in exposed S.mansoni cercariae to LC50 of both plants in comparsion with non-exposed ones by RAPD-PCR assay was investigated. Cercariae were divided into three groups: group A: control non-exposed cercariae; group B: cercariae exposed to S.nigrum; and group C: cercariae exposed to C.citrinus. Results: The cercaricidal potency of tested extracts was concentration-dependent. The cercaricidal toxicity of S. nigrum extracts was 1.2 times higher than that of C.citrinus(LC90 values were 50 mg/L and 60 mg/L, respectively). RAPD-PCR revealed different band polymorphism patterns for each primer used and cercariae exposed to S.nigrum revealed a higher number of band polymorphism (20 bands) than that obtained by cercariae exposed to C.citrinus (16 bands) which were different from those of control group reflecting the genetic variability among the groups studies. Conclusion: C.citrinus and S.nigrum are effective cercaricidal agents that can be utilized to minimize water transmission of schistosomiasis. Also, RAPD-PCR is useful for examining the genetic polymorphism of schistosomal cercariae induced by plants extracts, and assessment of genetic of damage of drug development fields.","PeriodicalId":41408,"journal":{"name":"Parasitologists United Journal","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.4,"publicationDate":"2019-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46627030","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Molecular monitoring of the therapeutic effect of Albendazole on Ascaris lumbricoides and Ancylostoma duodenale infected children using conventional multiplex PCR","authors":"S. Yahia, Howayda S. F. Moawad, T. Farag, S. Mohammad","doi":"10.21608/PUJ.2019.10309.1033","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21608/PUJ.2019.10309.1033","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Background: Globally, many individuals are infected with soil-transmitted helminthes (STHS)with majority occurring in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Albendazole (ADZ) is a broad-spectrum anthelmintic used efficiently for STHs control. Upgrading the assessment of ADZ efficacy is important to confirm that drug resistance has not emerged. Objective: To assess the therapeutic efficiency of ADZ in both A.duodenale infections by conventional multiplex PCR. Subjects and Methods: Stool specimens from 191 boys  and 123 girls, aged from 2to3 years were screened by saline wet mount and iodine stained smears and cellophane thick smears (Keto-Katz technique). All positive cases were given a single oral dose of 400 mg ADZ than 2 weeks later new stool samples were collected and subjected to multiplex PCR. Before medication, anemia assessment (figure prick capillary blood sample) was performed. Results: Prevalence of infection with A.lumbricoides and A.duodenale was 20.7% and 5.4%, respectively. Parasitic infections were more prevalent in age group 7-13 years (59%) than in 2-6 years (41%) respectively. Boys were slightly more affected than girls (52.6% versus 47.4%). Prevalence of parasitic infections among cases living in rural areas proved to higher than those living in urban areas (65.4% versus 34.6%). Examination  for associated anemia showed that 35.9% of infected cases were anemic (Hb level < 11.5 mg/dl) versus 9.7% in non-infected cases. Diarrhea and colic were more prevalent in infected cases (39.7% and 62.8%, respectively) than in those that were non-infected (5.5% and 8.9%, respectively). The therapeutic efficacy of ADZ resulted in a cure rate of 93.8% and 88.2% for A.lumbricoides and A.duodenal infections, respectively; with an egg reduction rate (ERR)of 96.1% and 91.2%, respectively. The multiplex PCR sensitivity was 100% for detection of both worms; the specificity was 96.8% and 93.8%, respectively. With diagnostic accuracy of 96.9% and 94.1%, respectively. Conclusion: Multiplex PCR was useful for measurement of the therapeutic efficacy of ADZas an anthelminthic drug.","PeriodicalId":41408,"journal":{"name":"Parasitologists United Journal","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.4,"publicationDate":"2019-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42097929","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Theodor Bilharz and a life trip to Egypt","authors":"N. El-Dib","doi":"10.21608/PUJ.2019.10929.1036","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21608/PUJ.2019.10929.1036","url":null,"abstract":"abstract: Theodor Billharz, the German professor born in Sigmaringen in 1825, is one of the eminent professors in the history of Parasitiology and Tropical Medicine. He came to Egypt as an assistent of professor Griesinger in the year 1850, and was fascinated with the country, to the degree that he studied Arabic and hieroglyphic languages in order to understand Egypt and Egyptians. He was assigned to work in Kasr Al Ainy hospital in Cairo where he served the patients and lectured the midecal students. During his work, he detected the blood fluke Distomum haematobium (that was later called Schistiosoma), the causative agent of hematuria and severe diseases among the Egyptians since ancient time. This discovery is considered a very important advancement in the recongnition of the diseases and its control. Billharz died in Egypt and was buried in Cairo. The Ministry of Health in Egypt honored him by establishing the institute of Theoder Billharz, for Schistosomiasis research.","PeriodicalId":41408,"journal":{"name":"Parasitologists United Journal","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.4,"publicationDate":"2019-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45464625","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Non-model organism research in the changing genomic landscape.","authors":"Monika Gulia-Nuss","doi":"10.21608/puj.2019.6449.1026","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21608/puj.2019.6449.1026","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>It is estimated that the planet earth is host to approximately ten million species of plants and animals with only approximately 1.5 million documented in the Catalogue of Life. However, our knowledge of biochemical, molecular, genetics, and cellular processes comes from the studies of fewer than a dozen organisms. Although focusing our research on these \"model\" organisms has paid off, the downside is that we know very little about the biology of the vast majority of organisms, the non-model organisms. Non-model organisms are organisms that have not been selected by the research community for extensive study mostly because they lack the features that make model organisms easy to investigate e.g. they cannot grow in the laboratory, have a long life cycle, low fecundity or poor genetics.</p>","PeriodicalId":41408,"journal":{"name":"Parasitologists United Journal","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.4,"publicationDate":"2019-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8081395/pdf/nihms-1691561.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"38933177","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Outcomes of Mesenchymal Stem Cells Therapy for Experimental Toxoplasmosis","authors":"S. Etewa, A. Al-Hoot, S. Abdelmoaty, S. Mohammad, H. Moawad, M. Sarhan, Sara Ahmed Abd El-Rahman, M. El-Shafey, Eman Zakaria Abd El-Monem","doi":"10.21608/PUJ.2019.7541.1030","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21608/PUJ.2019.7541.1030","url":null,"abstract":"Background: Toxoplasmosis is considered of the widest spread parasitic infections that affects approximately one third of human population. The formation of resident tissue cysts in chronically infected hosts is a challenge; none of the available drugs is capable of eradicating encysted forms of the parasite. It could be disastrous in immunosuppression due to reactivation of the dormant infection. The application of stem cells as promising therapy was tried in some parasitic diseases. Objective: In this work, stem cells therapy was investigated as a therapeutic line in treatment of murine toxoplasmosis. Materials and Methods: Parasitological, histopathological and immunohistochemical studies were performed to investigate the curable role of Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells (BM MSCs).Results: The outcomes revealed high significant decrease of the number and size of brain tissue cysts on combining BM MSCs with spiramycin, pyrimethamine and folinic acid. The tested group by BM MSCs as mono-theraputic line of treatment showed poor curable role, as cleared by the results of liver, spleen, eye and brain tissues studies; some improvement was noticed by the recruitment of CD8+ that was cleared by the immunohistochemical study of brain and spleen sections.Conclusion: BM MSCs alone have a poor therapeutic role, otherwise combined with spiramycin, pyrimethamine and folinic acid for treatment of toxoplasmosis.","PeriodicalId":41408,"journal":{"name":"Parasitologists United Journal","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.4,"publicationDate":"2019-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"68554051","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Immunomodulating effect of Schistosoma mansoni soluble egg antigen on course of induced diabetes mellitus in experimental mice","authors":"Naglaa S. M. El-Gebaly, M. Rehan, D. Abdelfattah","doi":"10.21608/PUJ.10929.1036","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21608/PUJ.10929.1036","url":null,"abstract":"Background: Helminth infections, particularly S.mansoni, are known to induce a protective role against various forms of autoimmune diseases, including type 1diabetes (TID). The observed S.mansoni significant inhibition or delay of diabetes development in non-obese diabetic mice (NOD), appeared to be due to a modulation of the diabetes-associated th1response towards protective th2 responses through IL-10 production. Objective: To study the effect of S. mansoni SEA on the immune response in induced TIDmouse moduel.  Material and Methods: In this study, 90 male Swiss Albino mice of 6 weeks old, weighing between 90 and 100g were divided into 5 groups; control group (I): Streptozontocin (STZ)-treated group (II); soluble egg antigen (SEA)-immunized group (III); (STZ+SEA) group (IV); (SEA+STZ) group (V). Mice were subjected to measurement of blood glucose levels at two and four weeks by colorimetric method, and measurement of IL-10 by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Histopathological examination of pancreatic sections of the five groups investigated signs suggesting presence or absence of pancreatic inflammation. \u0000  \u0000Results: Significant lowering of blood glucose level occurred at 2-weeks in groups III and V compared to group II and at 4-weeks in groups III, IV and V compared to group II, and in group V compared to group IV. Significant higher IL-10 level occurred at 2-weeks in groups IV and V compared to group II, and in groups IV and V compared to group III and in group V compared to group IV. In 4-weeks, significant increase in IL-10 level occurred in groups II, IV, V compared to group I, and in group V compared to group IV. No significant difference between groups III and I was recorded. Histopathological changes of pancreatic sections of groups I and III showed normal architecture of pancreatic cells; While groups II and IV coinciding with STZ treatment showed vacuolation and necrosis of islets of Langerhans at 2-weeks the inflammation subsided in group IV. In group V there was dilation of blood vessels with inflammatory cells at both weeks. Conclusion: S.mansoni derived SEA proved to be protective against TID leading to improvement of blood sugar control and indicating the protective role of S.mansoni infection.","PeriodicalId":41408,"journal":{"name":"Parasitologists United Journal","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.4,"publicationDate":"2019-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47675631","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Potent lethal effect of Syzygium aromaticum essential oil on Blastocystis spp.: An in vitro study","authors":"E. Eldin, M Hayam","doi":"10.21608/PUJ.2019.10650.1035","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21608/PUJ.2019.10650.1035","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Background: Blastocystis spp. Are protozoan parasites that cause a wide range of gastrointestinal manifestations and in is incriminated of being a possible element in the development of irritable bowel diseases as well as colorectal carcinoma. Metronidazole (MTZ) is commonly prescribed for treatment of blastocystosis. However, the reported increase in MTZ resistance parasites and undesirable side effects make the search for an alternative a priority. Syzygium aromaticum-eugenol rich  essential oil has been wiedly investigated for its medicinal properties. Objective: The present study was carried out to investigated the vitro effects of S.aromaticum-eugeonl rich essential oil on Blastocystis spp.in vitro. Material and Methods:  Stool samples were collected from patients complaining of diarrhea, referred for stool examination to the research and diagnostic laboratory unit of the parasitology department, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University. Microscopically, positive stool samples for Blastocystis spp.  Were cultured. Compared with MTZ, the effects of different concentrations of S.aromaticum essential oil on the viability of Blastocystis spp., tested essential oil, MTZand untreated parasite control was measured. Results: The minimal lethal concentrations for S.aromaticum were 300 μg/ml at 24h, 200 μg/ml at 48h, 100 μg/ml at 72h and 50 μg/ml at 96h, as compared to MTZ 1mg/ml that did not induce complete inhibition till the end of the studied intervals. Notable shrinkage in the size of Blastocystis-treated with S.aromaticum, was significantly smaller than that of parasite control. Conclusion: These results highly suggest that S.aromaticum essential oil may be a promising and safe agent for treatment of blastocystis.","PeriodicalId":41408,"journal":{"name":"Parasitologists United Journal","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.4,"publicationDate":"2019-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48375048","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"CD14 promotor polymorphisms associated with different allergic phenotypes and modulated with house dust mite allergy","authors":"Wafaa M. Zaki, H. Salem, H. M. Elazizy, Maryam Ebido Ajeeby","doi":"10.21608/PUJ.2019.7917.1031","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21608/PUJ.2019.7917.1031","url":null,"abstract":"Background: House dust mite (HDM) constitutes a major cause of allergic disease all over the world; meanwhile interaction between genetic control, environmental factors in the context of allergen exposure may affect allergic phenotype. Cluster of Differentiation 14 (CD14) polymorphisms play a major role in genetic control of allergic phenotype.Objective: We aimed to assess the role of CD14 genetic polymorphisms at two loci A(-1,145)G, and G(-1,359)T in expression of atopic asthma and allergic rhinitis in the context of HDM exposure in Jazan, KSA.Subjects and Methods: Through a case control study, 160 subjects served as 60 atopic asthmatic patients, 40 allergic rhinitis patients and 60 healthy non-allergic controls. Clinical and immunological parameters for the studied subjects were assessed. Then, genotyping of two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at A(-1,145)G, and G(-1,359)T, in the promoter region of the CD14 gene was conducted using restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP-PCR).Results: The present study showed that in HDM sensitive subjects there was a significant association between GG genotype variant at A(-1,145)G with atopic asthma patients and another significant association between TT genotype variant at G(-1,359)T with allergic rhinitis patients.Conclusion: The impact of allergy induced by HDMs may be enhanced in individuals with specific CD14 gene variants resulting in exaggerated allergic phenotype.","PeriodicalId":41408,"journal":{"name":"Parasitologists United Journal","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.4,"publicationDate":"2019-02-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48544608","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Expression of cysteine proteinases and cystatins in parasites and use of cysteine proteinase inhibitors in parasitic diseases. Part III: Protozoa (2): Plasmodium spp.","authors":"S. Abaza","doi":"10.21608/puj.2019.14599.1049","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21608/puj.2019.14599.1049","url":null,"abstract":"Genomic analysis of P. falciparum revealed more than thirty cysteine proteases (CPs). However, the most studied CPs are four falcipains (FPs), three dipeptidyl peptidases, a calpain and a metacaspase. Beside the main function of hemoglobin degradation, CPs are not only essential for protein trafficking, but they are also involved in egress cascade, i.e. rupture of infected erythrocytes as well as de novo RBCs invasion. In addition, studies showed their essential role in exo-erythrocytic hepatic stages, as well as oocyst production and gamete egress in mosquitoes. Accordingly, CPs inhibitors (CPIs) are of great interest in development of novel anti-malarial drugs as well as a new strategy to eliminate malaria transmission. Several compounds were investigated as CPIs including herbal extracts, known proteases with reported inhibitory potency against papain-like family, chemical compounds and synthesized derivatives as well as commercially available drugs approved for human use for other diseases. However, no commercial drug-targeting FPs has been developed yet. On the other hand, endogenous parasites cystatins (CYSs) regulate CPs and prevent inappropriate effects of host enzymes. The present review will discuss the role of essential plasmodial CPs and the importance of search for or development of potent specific selective CPI as a novel anti-marital drug. Hopefully the rapid development of highly efficient technology promises advances of expression systems using genetic tools for metabolic regulation of protein expression. This is in addition to recent technology for advanced screening directed with molecular modeling using three-dimensional construction of the target CP. Abbreviations: ADMET: Computational tool to evaluate drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity; CALP: Calpain; CP: Cysteine proteinase; CPI: Cysteine proteinase inhibitor; CSP: Circumsporozoite protein; CYS: Cystatin; DPAP: Dipeptidyl aminopeptidase; E-64: A broad spectrum CPI; FP: Falcipain; HTS: High throughput screening; MCA: Metacaspase; MSP: Merozoite surface protein; PV: Parasitophorus vacuole; SAR: Structure activity relationship; SERA: Serine-repeat antigen; VP: Vivapain; VS: Virtual screening. CPs, CYSs, CPIs and Plasmodium spp. Abaza 73 [I] Cysteine proteinases (CPs) In three review articles published by Rosenthal[1-3], the important roles of malarial proteases in the erythrocytic life cycle stages were designated. These stages account for malarial clinical manifestations, passing from merozoites invasion to mature schizonts, rupture of infected RBCs and release of numerous invasive merozoites. The reviewer discussed all types of proteases, including CPs, required for hemoglobin degradation in the trophozoite stag and for synthesis in subsequent stages, as well as their roles in rupture and subsequent reinvasion of new RBCs. He also claimed that knockout gene encoding falcipain 2 (FP-2) led to a transient block in hemoglobin breakdown with signif","PeriodicalId":41408,"journal":{"name":"Parasitologists United Journal","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.4,"publicationDate":"2019-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"68553993","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Expression of cysteine proteinases and cystatins in parasites and use of cysteine proteinase inhibitors in parasitic diseases. Part III: Protozoa (1)","authors":"S. Abaza","doi":"10.21608/puj.2019.11168.1037","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21608/puj.2019.11168.1037","url":null,"abstract":"Out of five classes of proteases (cysteine, serine, threonine, aspartate and glutamate), cysteine proteases (CPs) are responsible for hydrolysis of peptide bonds essential in several biological activities. In protozoa, as with helminths, not only do CPs play the major role in nutrients digestion, but they also have several functions for parasite survival such as differentiation of life cycle stages, immunomodulation of host immune response, and autophagy. Most wellcharacterized CPs in protozoa that were investigated in the last two decades belong to papain-family enzymes (clan CA, family C1). The present review highlights, in general, several aspects of CPs functions in protozoal survival and different strategies utilized in development of potent CPIs. The review also includes detailed data regarding T. gondii CPs, and their inhibitors wether exogenous (CPIs) or endogenous cystatins (CYSs). Abbreviations CALP: calpain; CATH: Cathepsin; CP: Cysteine proteinase; CPB: Cathepsin B; CPC: Cathepsin C; CPI: Cysteine proteinase inhibitor; CPL: Cathepsin L; CYS: Cystatin; MCA: Metacaspase; MIC: Microneme; PCD: Programmed cell death; PV: Parasitophorous vacuole; ROP: Rhoptry; VAC: Vacuolar compartment. CPs, CYSs, CPIs and T. gondii Abaza 9 succeeded to define 27, 24 and 18 genes, respectively. Amino acid sequences of the defined genes revealed high modular structure, suggesting the feasibility to utilize specific primers as diagnostic markers[5]. Recently, Siqueira-Neto et al.,[6] reviewed the proposed functions of the most characterized 29 CPs only in seven protozoa; E. histolytica (six), Leishmania spp. (six), Plasmodium spp. (five), T. gondii (five), T. cruzi (three), T. brucei (two), and Cryptosporidium spp. (two). It is evident that the most common proposed character of these CPs is a virulence factor to facilitate parasite survival and invasion. For each CP, the reviewers presented the mechanism(s) to achieve parasite invasion including induction of macrophage pro-inflammatory response, degradation of extracellular matrix, differentiation of life cycle stages, modulation of parasite metabolism, and autophagy. Mechanisms involved in immunoevasion and immunomodulation of host immune response are also proposed in all reviewed protozoa. There are other proposed mechanisms specified for some protozoa such as encystation-excystation transformation, and degradation of host IgA and IgG (E. histolytica), crossing blood brain barrier (T. brucei), hemoglobin degradation, enhancement of oocysts production, sporozoites invasion of hepatocytes, and apicoplast development and homeostasis (Plasmodium spp.), and high expression in tachyzoites for digestion of cytosolic proteins (T. gondii). Beside their role in parasite invasion, CPs of apicomplexan protozoa are required for pathogen exit from the infected cells to invade other cells and continue the infection. In Plasmodium spp. and T. gondii, being obligate intracellular pathogens, schizogony or endodyogeny, involv","PeriodicalId":41408,"journal":{"name":"Parasitologists United Journal","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.4,"publicationDate":"2019-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"68553426","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}