IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications最新文献

{"title":"Data-Driven Anomaly Detection and Mitigation for FACTS-Based Wide-Area Voltage Control System","authors":"Vivek Kumar Singh,&nbsp;Manimaran Govindarasu,&nbsp;Reynaldo Nuqui","doi":"10.1049/cps2.70020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/cps2.70020","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Wide-area voltage control system (WAVCS) ensures comprehensive voltage security and optimal management of power resources by incorporating flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) devices. However, due to its reliance on a wide-area communication network and coordination with FACTS-based local controllers, WAVCS is susceptible to cyberattacks. To address this issue, we propose a data-driven attack-resilient system (DARS) that integrates a machine learning-based anomaly detection system (ADS) and rules-based attack mitigation system (RAMS) to detect data integrity attacks and initiate necessary corrective actions to restore the grid operation after disturbances. The proposed ADS utilises the variational mode decomposition (VMD) technique to extract sub-signal modes from the measurement signals of WAVCS and computes statistics features to detect data integrity attacks using machine learning algorithms. Our proposed methodology is evaluated by emulating the fuzzy logic-based WAVCS, as developed by the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA), for Kundur's four machine two-area system. The WAVCS applies <span></span><math>\u0000 <semantics>\u0000 <mrow>\u0000 <mi>V</mi>\u0000 </mrow>\u0000 <annotation> $V$</annotation>\u0000 </semantics></math> mag<span></span><math>\u0000 <semantics>\u0000 <mrow>\u0000 <mi>Q</mi>\u0000 </mrow>\u0000 <annotation> $Q$</annotation>\u0000 </semantics></math> algorithm that utilises synchrophasor measurements (voltage magnitude and reactive power) to compute an optimal set-point for FACTS devices. Experimental results show that our proposed algorithm (VMD-DT) with statistics features outperforms existing machine learning algorithms while exhibiting a smaller processing time. Also, the proposed RAMS is effective in maintaining transient voltage stability within acceptable voltage limits by triggering different modes of operations upon detection of anomalies in grid network.</p>","PeriodicalId":36881,"journal":{"name":"IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/cps2.70020","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144315253","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Modelling False Data Injection and Denial of Service Attacks in Cyber-Physical Microgrids","authors":"Abbas Ahmadi,&nbsp;Mahdieh S. Sadabadi,&nbsp;Qobad Shafiee","doi":"10.1049/cps2.70025","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/cps2.70025","url":null,"abstract":"<p>To ensure normal and efficient operation, microgrids (MGs) must fully integrate information and communication technologies into their control systems. However, this integration introduces vulnerabilities to cyberattacks that can compromise sensitive data and disrupt operations. In MGs, two distinct types of data communication flows pose cybersecurity risks. The first involves local data transfers, which occur directly between devices based on their MAC addresses. The second involves network-wide data transmission using the Internet protocol (IP). When assessing the potential impact of cyberattacks on control systems, it is crucial to consider the specific nature of the protocols in use. This research analyses the impact of cyberattacks on data transmission in MGs and develops appropriate models for well-known attack types. It introduces updated models for false data injection (FDI) and denial of service (DoS) attacks to evaluate their impact on numerical stream data in MGs. Experimental and simulation-based validations are conducted to develop accurate cyberattack models and support the design of resilient control systems. The vulnerability of MGs' secondary control to these cyberattacks is assessed through MATLAB simulations. The results indicate that the impact of each attack depends on factors such as the packet sampling time, the injected data values (for FDI attacks) and the induced delays (for DoS attacks).</p>","PeriodicalId":36881,"journal":{"name":"IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/cps2.70025","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144299692","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Guest Editorial: Security and Privacy of Cyber-Physical System","authors":"Xiaojie Zhu,&nbsp;Jiankun Hu,&nbsp;Waqas Haider","doi":"10.1049/cps2.70012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/cps2.70012","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;p&gt;Cyber-physical systems (CPS) serve as the backbone of critical infrastructure, seamlessly integrating computation, networking and physical processes. However, the growing interconnectivity of these systems also increases their exposure to sophisticated cyber threats. Ensuring the security and privacy of CPS is crucial to maintaining operational stability, preventing service disruptions and mitigating cascading failures.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;This Special Issue presents cutting-edge research addressing diverse aspects of CPS security, ranging from attack methodologies to vulnerability assessments and resilience strategies. The selected papers provide insights into real-time attack implementations, advanced analytics using graph theory, multi-stage cyber threat scenarios and socio-technical security modelling.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;In this Special Issue, we have received 7 papers, all of which underwent peer review. Of the six originally submitted papers, four have been accepted and two have been ‘rejected with referral’, that is, they did not meet the criteria for publication to the IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory &amp; Applications, and on. Thus, the overall submissions were of high quality, which marks the success of this Special Issue.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The four eventually accepted papers can be categorised into four key themes: (1) cyber-physical attack modelling and system vulnerability, (2) graph-based cyber-physical system security analysis, (3) multi-stage cyber threats and impact assessment and (4) socio-technical security modelling for cyber-physical systems.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Yadav et al. investigate the impact of sliding mode-based switching attacks on power system components. By leveraging real-time simulation techniques, the study highlights how cyber-attacks on circuit breakers, excitation systems and governors can lead to cascading failures. The results offer valuable insights into the vulnerabilities of power grids and the need for proactive mitigation measures.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Jacobs et al. introduce a novel graph clustering approach for analysing cyber-physical interactions in smart grid environments. The study demonstrates how clustering techniques can help characterise disturbances, identify critical system components and enhance situational awareness. These findings pave the way for improved cybersecurity strategies by enabling better detection and response mechanisms.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Al Homoud et al. present an in-depth case study on a multi-stage cyber threat targeting power systems. The research details how cyber intrusions can escalate, leading to severe physical consequences in the grid. By leveraging the MITRE ATT&amp;CK framework, the authors propose defence strategies that enhance the resilience of cyber-physical energy management systems.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ani et al. explore socio-technical security modelling and simulation (STSec-M&amp;S) in cyber-physical systems (CPS) to enhance critical infrastructure (CI) cybersecurity, emphasising its potential for integrating technical and social aspects to","PeriodicalId":36881,"journal":{"name":"IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/cps2.70012","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144292921","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"An Intrusion Detection System for Wind Turbines Based on Thermal Models","authors":"Ngoc Que Anh Tran,&nbsp;Liang He","doi":"10.1049/cps2.70024","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/cps2.70024","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Wind energy plays an essential position in the renewable energy sector and is frequently deployed remotely, which makes them susceptible to intrusions that can compromise their operational system. This paper introduces a novel method <span>T–IDS</span> leveraging the interconnected thermal behaviours of wind turbine modules to identify the abnormal imprints that signify security breaches. Our approach consists of three key components: a graph model that outlines the dependencies among the thermal variables of the turbines, a random forest-based prediction strategy for these variables within the thermal graph and an anomaly detection method that assesses the predicted thermal values with actual observations. We performed extensive experiments using three real-world wind turbine supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) log datasets: one dataset collected over six months and two additional datasets covering 12-month operational durations from distinct wind turbine installations for rigorous cross-validation. The results demonstrate that <span>T–IDS</span> achieves an overall anomaly detection accuracy of 97.3% when detecting unusual thermal activities such as physical model damage leading to overheating or tampering temperature readings.</p>","PeriodicalId":36881,"journal":{"name":"IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/cps2.70024","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144264659","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Modelling a Reliable Multimedia Transmission Approach for Medical Wireless Sensor Networks","authors":"R. Nidhya,&nbsp;Manish Kumar,&nbsp;D. Pavithra,&nbsp;Harpreet Singh,&nbsp;Chetna Sharma,&nbsp;Anurag Sinha,&nbsp;Celestine Iwendi,&nbsp;Syed Abid Hussain","doi":"10.1049/cps2.70022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/cps2.70022","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Advancement in wireless and communication technologies has remarkably boosted healthcare services such as Medical WSN. Protecting the patient's health-related data against malicious activities is also essential. It is mandatory to ensure its dependability and reliability. The reliability of the proposed model in Secure Multimedia Transmission for medical wireless sensor network (IRSMT) system considers the need for authentication and confidentiality in security. Additionally, it enhances the transmission reliability during multimedia data transmission compared to the prevailing methods. To provide reliable multimedia (MM) data transmission, an improved energy-efficient protocol is considered where the protocol differentiates MM and non-MM data to enhance routing methodology for MM transmission. The proposed IRSMT enhances adaptability by balancing media quality with prompt delivery and loss tolerance. It is achieved through the anonymous routing method, which maintains the node secrecy using the SHA 256 method. It reduces the probability of data retransmission and provides less processing delay to acquire routing reliability. The simulation results demonstrate the advantages of IRSMT in comparison with the prevailing protocols in performance metrics such as throughput, packet delivery ratio, jitter etc.</p>","PeriodicalId":36881,"journal":{"name":"IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/cps2.70022","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144264658","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Systematic Review of Sensor Vulnerabilities and Cyber-Physical Threats in Industrial Robotic Systems","authors":"Abdul Kareem Shaik,&nbsp;Alireza Mohammadi,&nbsp;Hafiz Malik","doi":"10.1049/cps2.70023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/cps2.70023","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Industrial robotic systems in the era of Industry 4.0 play a pivotal role in modern manufacturing. These systems, which belong to the larger class of cyber-physical systems (CPSs), rely heavily on advanced sensing capabilities to execute complex and delicate tasks with high precision and efficiency. It is of no surprise that the integration of sensors with Industry 4.0 robotic systems exposes them to potential cyber-physical risks/threats. This paper addresses a critical gap in the literature of industrial robotics cybersecurity by presenting a comprehensive analysis of vulnerabilities in the sensing systems of industrial robots. In particular, we systematically explore how sensor performance limits, faults and biases can be exploited by attackers who can then turn these inherent weaknesses into security threats. Our investigation relies on a detailed literature review of a multitude of commonly used sensors in industrial robotic systems through the lens of their physics-based operating principles, classifications, performance limits, potential faults and associated vulnerabilities against disturbances such as temperature fluctuations, electromagnetic and acoustic interference, and ambient light variations. The result of this systematic investigation is a ring chart illustrating the overlaps and entanglements of sensor faults and performance limits, which can be exploited by cyber-physical adversaries. Additionally, we investigate the cascading effects of compromised sensor data on the operation of industrial robotic systems through a cause-and-effect analysis, where the sensor vulnerabilities can cause malfunction and lead to cyber-physical damage. The result of this analysis is a sensor cyber-physical threat cause-and-effect diagram, which can be employed for design of robust and effective cyber-physical defence measures. By providing insights into sensor-related cyber-risks, our cyber-physical threat analysis paves the path for enhanced industrial robotics security.</p>","PeriodicalId":36881,"journal":{"name":"IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/cps2.70023","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144171813","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Innovative Investigation of the Resilience of EV Charging Infrastructure Under Cyber-Physical Threats Based on a Real-Time Co-Simulation Testbed","authors":"Feras Alasali,&nbsp;Salah Abu Ghalyon,&nbsp;Naser El-Naily,&nbsp;Mohammed I. Abuashour,&nbsp;Anas AlMajali,&nbsp;Awni Itradat,&nbsp;William Holderbaum","doi":"10.1049/cps2.70021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/cps2.70021","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The rapid expansion of electric vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure has introduced significant vulnerabilities to cyber-physical threats, raising concerns about the resilience of both charging and smart power grid systems. This paper presents an innovative investigation into the resilience of EV charging infrastructure using a real-time co-simulation testbed, integrating both power network models and communication protocols such as IEC 61850. The study addresses gaps in existing research by implementing a realistic smart grid environment that incorporates EVs, charging stations and communication networks to simulate cyber-physical interactions. Key cyber-attacks, such as remote charging station status and configuration manipulations and their impact on it, are analysed in real-time simulations. Results show that even a relatively small attack utilising an IEEE 9-bus system with two EV charging stations can severely disrupt grid stability. The paper also explores various attacks targeting EV infrastructure, including charging stations, communication protocols, and management systems. The combined effects of cyber-attacks on power consumption and current variation highlight the critical importance of ensuring that charging infrastructure can adapt to sudden changes in demand while maintaining operational integrity.</p>","PeriodicalId":36881,"journal":{"name":"IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/cps2.70021","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144074328","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"CompDSE: A Methodology for Design Space Exploration of Computing Subsystems Within Complex Cyber-Physical Systems","authors":"Faezeh Sadat Saadatmand,&nbsp;Todor Stefanov,&nbsp;Ignacio González Alonso,&nbsp;Andy D. Pimentel,&nbsp;Benny Akesson","doi":"10.1049/cps2.70019","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/cps2.70019","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Designing the next-generation complex distributed cyber-physical systems (dCPS) poses significant challenges for manufacturing companies, necessitating efficient design space exploration (DSE) techniques to evaluate potential design decisions and their impact on nonfunctional aspects of the systems, such as performance, reliability and energy consumption. This paper introduces CompDSE, a methodology designed to facilitate the DSE of complex dCPS, specifically focusing on the cyber components, that is, the computing subsystems within dCPS. CompDSE defines and utilises abstract models of the application workload, computing hardware platform and workload-to-platform mapping of dCPS, automatically derived from runtime trace data, and integrates them into a discrete event simulation environment to explore various design points. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our methodology through a case study on the ASML TWINSCAN lithography machine, a complex industrial dCPS. The results showcase potential performance enhancements achieved by optimising computing subsystems while considering physical constraints. Evaluating each design point takes under a minute, highlighting the CompDSE efficiency and scalability in tackling complex dCPS with large design spaces.</p>","PeriodicalId":36881,"journal":{"name":"IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/cps2.70019","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144074329","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Privacy Preserving Federated Learning for Energy Disaggregation of Smart Homes","authors":"Mazhar Ali,&nbsp;Ajit Kumar,&nbsp;Bong Jun Choi","doi":"10.1049/cps2.70013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/cps2.70013","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Smart advanced metering infrastructure and edge devices show promising solutions in digitalising distributed energy systems. Energy disaggregation of household load consumption provides a better understanding of consumers’ appliance-level usage patterns. Machine learning approaches enhance the power system's efficiency but this is contingent upon sufficient training samples for efficient and accurate prediction tasks. In a centralised setup, transferring such a substantially high volume of information to the cloud server has a communication bottleneck. Although high-computing edge devices seek to address such problems, the data scarcity and heterogeneity among clients remain challenges to be addressed. Federated learning offers a compelling solution in such a scenario by leveraging the ML model training at edge devices and aggregating the client's updates at a cloud server. However, FL still faces significant security issues, including the potential eavesdropping by a malicious actor with the intention of stealing clients' information while communicating with an honest-but-curious server. The study aims to secure the sensitive information of energy users participating in the nonintrusive load monitoring (NILM) program by integrating differential privacy with a personalised federated learning approach. The Fisher information method was adapted to extract the global model information based on common features, while personalised updates will not be shared with the server for client-specific features. Similarly, the authors employed an adaptive differential privacy only on the shared local updates (DP-PFL) while communicating with the server. Experimental results on the Pecan Street and REFIT datasets depict that DP-PFL exhibits more favourable performance on both the energy prediction and status classification tasks compared to other state-of-the-art DP approaches in federated NILM.</p>","PeriodicalId":36881,"journal":{"name":"IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-05-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/cps2.70013","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143905207","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Socio-Technical Security Modelling and Simulations in Cyber-Physical Systems: Outlook on Knowledge, Perceptions, Practices, Enablers, and Barriers","authors":"Uchenna Daniel Ani,&nbsp;Mohammed Al-Mhiqani,&nbsp;Nilufer Tuptuk,&nbsp;Stephen Hailes,&nbsp;Jeremy Daniel McKendrick Watson","doi":"10.1049/cps2.70017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/cps2.70017","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Socio-Technical Security Modelling and Simulation (STSec-M&amp;S) is a technique used for reasoning and representing security viewpoints that include both the social and technical aspects of a system. It has shown great potential for improving the cybersecurity and resilience of Critical Infrastructure (CI). This study involved a multi-methods approach, consisting of a scoping literature review and a focus group workshop, conducted with stakeholder engagement from critical infrastructure stakeholders to explore their perceptions and practices regarding the use of socio-technical security modelling and simulation. The findings suggest that the current state of knowledge regarding the use and effectiveness of STSec-M&amp;Ss approaches is limited in CI domains. Consequently, there is little application of it in existing CI systems, regardless of its recognised benefits of enabling a better understanding of CI functionalities, security goals, early and more holistic risk identifications and selection of appropriate countermeasures. The benefits of the STSec-M&amp;S approach can be better realised by effective cross-sector communications and collaborations, team partnerships, system and approach sophistication, and better security awareness amongst others. The potential barriers that can impede such benefits include high expense for implementing the technique, low data availability and quality, regulatory compliance, and competency gaps etc. Helpful recommendations include exploring and using realistic data, validating system security models, and exploring new ways of reskilling and upskilling CI stakeholders in socio-technical security-thinking and M&amp;S approaches to enhance cybersecurity and resilience of CIs.</p>","PeriodicalId":36881,"journal":{"name":"IET Cyber-Physical Systems: Theory and Applications","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-04-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/cps2.70017","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143888896","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}