SAE International Journal of Electrified Vehicles最新文献

{"title":"Energy-Efficient Dispatching of Battery Electric Truck Fleets with Backhauls and Time Windows","authors":"Dongbo Peng, Guoyuan Wu, K. Boriboonsomsin","doi":"10.4271/14-13-01-0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/14-13-01-0009","url":null,"abstract":"The adoption of battery electric trucks (BETs) as a replacement for diesel trucks has potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the freight transportation sector. However, BETs have shorter driving range and lower payload capacity, which need to be taken into account when dispatching them. This article addresses the energy-efficient dispatching of BET fleets, considering backhauls and time windows. To optimize vehicle utilization, customers are categorized into two groups: linehaul customers requiring deliveries, where the deliveries need to be made following the last-in-first-out principle, and backhaul customers requiring pickups. The objective is to determine a set of energy-efficient routes that integrate both linehaul and backhaul customers while considering factors such as limited driving range, payload capacity of BETs, and the possibility of en route recharging. We formulate the problem as a mixed-integer linear programming model and propose an algorithm that combines adaptive large neighborhood search and simulated annealing metaheuristics to solve it. The effectiveness of the proposed strategy is demonstrated through extensive experiments using a real-world case study from a logistics company in Southern California. The results indicate that the proposed strategy leads to a significant reduction in total energy consumption compared to the baseline strategy, ranging from 11% to 40%, while maintaining reasonable computational time. In addition, the proposed strategy provides solutions that are better than or comparable with those obtained by other metaheuristics. This research contributes to the development of sustainable transportation solutions in the freight sector by providing a novel approach for dispatching BET fleets. The findings emphasize the potential of deploying BETs to achieve energy savings and advance the goal of green logistics.","PeriodicalId":36261,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Electrified Vehicles","volume":"3 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2023-12-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139164972","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Using Latent Heat Storage for Improving Battery Electric Vehicle\u0000 Thermal Management System Efficiency","authors":"Zhou Wei, Jiangbin Zhou, Christian Rathberger","doi":"10.4271/14-13-02-0012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/14-13-02-0012","url":null,"abstract":"One of the key problems of battery electric vehicles is the risk of severe range\u0000 reduction in winter conditions. Technologies such as heat pump systems can help\u0000 to mitigate such effects, but finding adequate heat sources for the heat pump\u0000 sometimes can be a problem, too. In cold ambient conditions below −10°C and for\u0000 a cold-soaked vehicle this can become a limiting factor. Storing waste heat or\u0000 excess cold when it is generated and releasing it to the vehicle thermal\u0000 management system later can reduce peak thermal requirements to more manageable\u0000 average levels. In related architectures it is not always necessary to replace\u0000 existing electric heaters or conventional air-conditioning systems. Sometimes it\u0000 is more efficient to keep them and support them, instead. Accordingly, we show,\u0000 how latent heat storage can be used to increase the efficiency of existing,\u0000 well-established heating and cooling technologies without replacing them. We\u0000 investigate different possibilities for the integration of phase change\u0000 materials into a baseline battery electric vehicle thermal management system and\u0000 compare the resulting benefits.","PeriodicalId":36261,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Electrified Vehicles","volume":"105 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2023-12-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138958718","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Multi-Physics Design Approach for Electromagnetic and Stress\u0000 Performance Improvement in an Interior Permanent Magnet Motor","authors":"Aniruddha Agrawal, Ashish Sahu, Francisco Juarez-Leon, Reemon Z. Haddad, D. Al-Ani, B. Bilgin","doi":"10.4271/14-13-02-0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/14-13-02-0011","url":null,"abstract":"Electric motors constitute a critical component of an electric vehicle\u0000 powertrain. An improved motor design can help improve the overall performance of\u0000 the drivetrain of an electric vehicle making it more compact and power dense. In\u0000 this article, the electromagnetic torque output of a double V-shaped traction\u0000 IPMSM is maximized by geometry optimization, while considering overall material\u0000 cost minimization as the second objective. A robust and flexible parametric\u0000 model of the IPMSM is developed in ANSYS Maxwell 2D. Various parameters are\u0000 defined in the rotor and stator geometries to perform an effective\u0000 multi-objective parametric design optimization. Advanced sensitivity analysis,\u0000 surrogate modeling, and optimization capabilities of ANSYS optiSlang software\u0000 are leveraged in the optimization. Furthermore, a demagnetization analysis is\u0000 performed to evaluate the robustness of the optimized design. At high-speed\u0000 operation, a rotor core is usually subject to higher deformation due to the high\u0000 centrifugal force. Thus, rotor stresses are reduced in the optimized design by\u0000 shaping the flux barriers around the permanent magnets. This enables high\u0000 structural integrity of the optimized design for high-speed operation along with\u0000 the improved electromagnetic performance. The multi-physics design approach\u0000 proposed in this article provides the capability to design and optimize an IPMSM\u0000 geometry for performance and cost, which are essential objectives to achieve in\u0000 an electrified powertrain development. Moreover, consideration of rotor stress\u0000 at high operating speeds extends the applicability of the proposed design\u0000 approach to high-power, high-speed electric propulsion applications.","PeriodicalId":36261,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Electrified Vehicles","volume":"83 15","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2023-12-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138600322","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Speedy Hierarchical Eco-Planning for Connected Multi-Stack Fuel Cell\u0000 Vehicles via Health-Conscious Decentralized Convex Optimization","authors":"Arash Khalatbarisoltani, Jie Han, Wenxue Liu, Xiaosong Hu","doi":"10.4271/14-13-01-0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/14-13-01-0008","url":null,"abstract":"Connected fuel cell vehicles (C-FCVs) have gained increasing attention for\u0000 solving traffic congestion and environmental pollution issues. To reduce\u0000 operational costs, increase driving range, and improve driver comfort,\u0000 simultaneously optimizing C-FCV speed trajectories and powertrain operation is a\u0000 promising approach. Nevertheless, this remains difficult due to heavy\u0000 computational demands and the complexity of real-time traffic scenarios. To\u0000 resolve these issues, this article proposes a two-level eco-driving strategy\u0000 consisting of speed planning and energy management layers. In the top layer, the\u0000 speed planning predictor first predicts dynamic traffic constraints using the\u0000 long short-term memory (LSTM) model. Second, a model predictive control (MPC)\u0000 framework optimizes speed trajectories under dynamic traffic constraints,\u0000 considering hydrogen consumption, ride comfort, and traffic flow efficiency. A\u0000 multivariable polynomial hydrogen consumption model is also introduced to reduce\u0000 computational time. In the bottom layer, the decentralized MPC framework uses\u0000 the calculated speed trajectory to figure out how to allocate the power\u0000 optimally between the fuel cell modules and the battery pack. The objective of\u0000 the optimization problem is to reduce hydrogen consumption and mitigate\u0000 component degradation by focusing on targets such as the operating range of\u0000 state of charge (SoC), as well as battery and fuel cell degradation. Simulation\u0000 results show that the proposed decentralized eco-planning strategy can optimize\u0000 the speed trajectory to make the ride much more comfortable with a small amount\u0000 of jerkiness (−0.18 to 0.18 m/s3) and reduce the amount of hydrogen\u0000 used per unit distance by 7.28% and the amount of degradation by 5.33%.","PeriodicalId":36261,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Electrified Vehicles","volume":"25 14","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2023-12-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138601861","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Review of Gas Generation Behavior during Thermal Runaway of\u0000 Lithium-Ion Batteries","authors":"Chuang Qi, Zhenyan Liu, Chunjing Lin, Yuanzhi Hu","doi":"10.4271/14-13-03-0021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/14-13-03-0021","url":null,"abstract":"Due to the limitations of current battery manufacturing processes, integration\u0000 technology, and operating conditions, the large-scale application of lithium-ion\u0000 batteries in the fields of energy storage and electric vehicles has led to an\u0000 increasing number of fire accidents. When a lithium-ion battery undergoes\u0000 thermal runaway, it undergoes complex and violent reactions, which can lead to\u0000 combustion and explosion, accompanied by the production of a large amount of\u0000 flammable and toxic gases. These flammable gases continue to undergo chemical\u0000 reactions at high temperatures, producing complex secondary combustion products.\u0000 This article systematically summarizes the gas generation characteristics of\u0000 different types and states of batteries under different thermal runaway\u0000 triggering conditions. And based on this, proposes the key research directions\u0000 for the gas generation characteristics of lithium-ion batteries.","PeriodicalId":36261,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Electrified Vehicles","volume":"35 25","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2023-12-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138601541","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Event and Protection: A\u0000 Review","authors":"Chi-Hao Chang, Craig Gorin, Bizhong Zhu, Guy Beaucarne, Guo Ji, Shin Yoshida","doi":"10.4271/14-13-03-0019","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/14-13-03-0019","url":null,"abstract":"The exponentially growing electrification market is driving demand for\u0000 lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with high performance. However, LIB thermal runaway\u0000 events are one of the unresolved safety concerns. Thermal runaway of an\u0000 individual LIB can cause a chain reaction of runaway events in nearby cells, or\u0000 thermal propagation, potentially causing significant battery fires and\u0000 explosions. Such a safety issue of LIBs raises a huge concern for a variety of\u0000 applications including electric vehicles (EVs). With increasingly higher\u0000 energy-density battery technologies being implemented in EVs to enable a longer\u0000 driving mileage per charge, LIB safety enhancement is becoming critical for\u0000 customers. This comprehensive review offers an encompassing overview of\u0000 prevalent abuse conditions, the thermal event processes and mechanisms\u0000 associated with LIBs, and various strategies for suppression, prevention, and\u0000 mitigation. Importantly, the report presents a unique vantage point,\u0000 amalgamating insights sourced not only from academic research but also from a\u0000 pragmatic industrial perspective, thus enriching the breadth and depth of the\u0000 information presented.","PeriodicalId":36261,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Electrified Vehicles","volume":" 29","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2023-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138619808","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Analysis on the Thermal Behavior of Lithium-Ion Battery with Nickel-Rich Cathode and Silicon-Carbon Composite Anode","authors":"Zhanhui Yao, Jia Wang, Yuemeng Zhang","doi":"10.4271/14-13-03-0020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/14-13-03-0020","url":null,"abstract":"Compared with traditional internal combustion engine vehicles, electric vehicles still have shortfall in driving range and energy replenishment time. In order to continuously improve the driving range of electric vehicles, the high-nickel/silicon-carbon lithium-ion battery with high energy density is a promising industrialized application route. However, with the increase of battery energy density, the heat generation of battery usually increases, which will inevitably bring greater heat dissipation problems to the battery thermal management system. To design a good thermal management system, the first thing is to accurately measure and deeply understand the heat generation characteristics of the battery. In this work, the heat generation behavior of a high-nickel LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2/silicon-carbon pouch-type battery under different operating conditions were tested by an isothermal battery calorimeter. The influence of current rate, current direction, and operating temperature on the heat generation characteristics of the battery was systematically analyzed. A comparison between heat generation power of batteries with different cathode/anode materials was provided. The research results of this article can deepen the understanding of the heat generation behavior of LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2/silicon-carbon battery and provide guideline for the design of thermal management system.","PeriodicalId":36261,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Electrified Vehicles","volume":"205 ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2023-11-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139251247","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Battery Thermal Runaway Preventive Time Delay Strategy Using Different Melting Point Phase Change Materials","authors":"Virendra Talele, Mahesh Suresh Patil, Uğur Moralı, S. Panchal, R. Fraser, Michael Fowler, P. Thorat","doi":"10.4271/14-13-03-0017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/14-13-03-0017","url":null,"abstract":"The production of alternative clean energy vehicles provides a sustainable solution for the transportation industry. An effective battery cooling system is required for the safe operation of electric vehicles throughout their lifetime. However, in the pursuit of this technological change, issues of battery overheating leading to thermal runaways (TRs) are seen as major concerns. For example, lithium (Li)-ion batteries of electric vehicles can lose thermal stability owing to electrochemical damage due to overheating of the core. In this study, we look at how a different melting point phase change material (PCM) can be used to delay the TR trigger point of a high-energy density lithium-iron phosphate (LiFePO4) chemistry 86 Amp-hour (Ah) battery. The battery is investigated under thermal abuse conditions by wrapping heater foil and operating it at 500-W constant heat conditions until the battery runs in an abuse scenario. A comparative time delay methodology is developed to understand the TR trigger points under a timescale factor for different ambient conditions such as 25°C, 35°C, and 45°C. In the present study, two different types of PCMs are selected, that is, paraffin wax which melts at 45°C and Organic Axiotherm (ATP-78) which melts at 78°C. Modeling results suggest that the TR trigger point and peak onset temperature are greatly influenced by the battery operating temperature. The concluded results indicate that by submerging the battery in PCM, the TR trigger point can be greatly delayed, providing additional time for the driver and passenger to evacuate the vehicle. However, the present findings also reflect that fire propagation cannot be completely extinguished due to the volatile hydrocarbon content in the PCM. Hence from this study, it is recommended that whenever using a PCM-equipped passive cooling strategy, thermal insulation should be provided at the wall of the PCM to delay the TR propagation from one battery to another at pack-level configuration.","PeriodicalId":36261,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Electrified Vehicles","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2023-10-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139320638","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effect of Electrical Connection on Thermal Propagation of Parallel Battery Module","authors":"Lei Liu, Nannan Kuang, Jian Hu, Sanbing Liu, Dinghong Liu, Wenkai Dong, Peixia Yang, Anmin Liu, Peng Peng","doi":"10.4271/14-13-03-0018","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/14-13-03-0018","url":null,"abstract":"<div>Electrical connection plays an important role in not only direct heat transfer, but also the transmission of electric energy and the transformation of electrothermal effect in the parallel battery modules. The thermal propagation simulation research model was established based on the equivalent circuit and thermal runaway experimental research of a module formed by four parallel cells, which superimposes the discharge process and corresponding electrothermal effect in the process of thermal runaway and thermal propagation, and pays attention to the SoC (state of charge) state and corresponding thermal runaway energy release changes after cell discharged. Thermal runaway and propagation characteristics of parallel and non-parallel battery modules were analyzed and results showed that without considering the energy exchange between the system and the environment, the parallel battery module will accelerate the process of thermal propagation. Further analysis shows that the relationship between the stored electric energy and the thermal runaway energy of battery cells is the key factor affecting the thermal propagation rate of parallel battery module. If the slope of the stored electric energy of the cell changing with SoC is greater than the slope of its thermal runaway energy changing with SoC, the parallel circuit will accelerate the thermal propagation process. If the slope of the stored electric energy of the battery changing with SoC is less than the slope of its thermal runaway energy changing with SoC, the parallel circuit will delay the thermal propagation process.</div>","PeriodicalId":36261,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Electrified Vehicles","volume":"56 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136253145","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical Analysis and Modelling of the Effectiveness of Micro Wind Turbines Installed in an Electric Vehicle as a Range Extender","authors":"Munzer Ebaid, Zin Al Abdin A. E. Shahin, Mohammad M. D. Alshawabkeh","doi":"10.4271/14-13-02-0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/14-13-02-0010","url":null,"abstract":"<div>In recent years, the number of electric vehicles (EVs) has grown rapidly, as well as public interest in them. However, the lack of sufficient range is one of the most common complaints about these vehicles, which is particularly problematic for people with long daily commutes. Thus, this article proposed a solution to this problem by installing micro wind turbines (MWTs) on EVs as a range extender. The turbines will generate electricity by converting the kinetic energy of the air flowing through the MWT into mechanical energy, which can have a reasonable effect on the vehicle aerodynamics. The article uses mathematical modelling and numerical analysis. Regarding the modelling, a detailed EV model in MATLAB/SIMULINK was developed to analyze the EV performance using various driving cycles in real time. In terms of numerical analysis, a detailed computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model has been implemented on a sample EV (Kia Soul) and an MWT using the Moving Reference Frame (MRF) method to act as a virtual wind tunnel in order to investigate the aerodynamic performance. The optimum location for the turbines to be installed has been identified on the front bumper of the car. The MWT has been designed from scratch using Qblade and Xfoil solvers by testing many foil sections and blade parameters to find the best design for the vehicle speed range. After using the designed turbine numerical results and implementing them into the EV model in MATLAB/SIMULINK, the results become more accurate. The vehicle efficiency increased by 13.1% at the Federal Test Procedure (FTP) highway driving cycle with five MWTs installed in the front bumper of the car, and its range increased by 24 km on a full charge; however, three MWTs have been studied in the CFD analysis to investigate the effect of the system on the vehicle drag coefficient, which is considered as the main trade-off of the proposed work. The analytical and numerical errors, points of strength, and weaknesses in each method and model have been determined to verify the entire work.</div>","PeriodicalId":36261,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Electrified Vehicles","volume":"80 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136360651","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}