Veterinary Parasitology: X最新文献

{"title":"Gene expression profiles of the small intestine of village chickens from an <i>Ascaridia galli</i> infested environment.","authors":"D P Malatji, E van Marle-Koster, F C Muchadeyi","doi":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100012","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Nematodes of the genus <i>Ascaridia</i> are known to infect many species of birds and result in fatal diseases. <i>A. galli</i> damages the intestinal mucosa of chickens leading to blood loss, secondary infection and occasionally the obstruction of small intestines due to high worm burden. This study investigated the gene expression profiles in chickens from two different provinces of South Africa naturally exposed to <i>A. galli</i> infestations and tested either positive or negative for the parasite. The study further investigated gene expression profiles of the <i>A. galli</i> infected duodenum, jejunum and ileum tissues of the small intestines. The <i>A. galli</i> positive intestines displayed hypertrophy of the intestinal villi with accumulation of inflammatory cells and necrosis of the crypts of Lieberkühn glands, lesions that were absent in the uninfected intestines. Total RNA isolated from small intestines of infected and non-infected intestines was sequenced using Illumina HiSeq technology to generate up to 23,856,130 reads. Between any two-way comparisons of the intestines, 277 and 190 transcripts were significantly expressed in Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) chickens, respectively. Gene ontology analysis of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) revealed an enrichment of genes reported to function in the immune response, defense response, inflammatory response and cell signalling genes. <i>T cell</i> receptor signalling pathways and arachidonic acid metabolism pathways were among the most significantly impacted pathways. Overall, the study provided insights into adaptative mechanisms for chickens extensively raised in parasite infected environments.</p>","PeriodicalId":23537,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Parasitology: X","volume":"2 ","pages":"100012"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-05-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7458390/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149017840","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effects of nematode parasitism on activity patterns in first-season grazing cattle.","authors":"Niclas Högberg, Lena Lidfors, Anna Hessle, Katarina Arvidsson Segerkvist, Anders Herlin, Johan Höglund","doi":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100011","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>We investigated the effects of gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) challenge on activity patterns in first season grazing (FSG) steers exposed to two different levels of <i>Ostertagia ostertagi</i> and <i>Cooperia oncophora</i>. At turn-out, experimental animals were allocated to one of two treatment groups grazing in different enclosures each with 32 animals. The first group (High) received 5000 third stage (L3) <i>O. ostertagi</i> (50%) and <i>C. onchophora</i> (50%) larvae; whereas the second group (Low) were dewormed monthly with 0.5 mg ivermectin (Noromectin®, Pour-on) per kg bodyweight. Activity patterns were monitored by fitting some animals in each group (High, <i>n =</i> 10; Low, <i>n =</i> 8) with leg mounted sensors (IceTag® 3D-accelerometers) during three two-week periods. In animals fitted with sensors body weight gain (BWG) was recorded every fortnight, whereas faecal and blood samples were collected every four weeks for nematode faecal egg count (FEC) and serum pepsinogen concentrations (SPC). Differences between the periods in daily (<i>P</i> =  0.046) and diurnal (<i>P</i> =  0.0502) activities were recorded between groups during the course of the study. A significant (<i>P</i> =  0.038) increase in the number of lying bouts was recorded in group High during the second period (days 74-86), which was correlated (r = 0.55, <i>P</i> = 0.018) to an increase in SPC ≈ 85 days after turn-out. BWG was reduced (<i>P</i> =  0.037) in group High compared to group Low, deviating from day 45. Strongyle nematode eggs were observed in both groups 29 days after turn-out, however the mean EPG remained low in group Low throughout the experiment. An increase in SPC was observed (<i>P</i> <  0.0038) in group High with levels peaking on day 58. In conclusion, our data supports that changes in activity patterns monitored with sensors could contribute to the identification of animals challenged with GIN, but also improve our understanding in the potential welfare impairments caused by such infections.</p>","PeriodicalId":23537,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Parasitology: X","volume":"1 ","pages":"100011"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-05-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7458373/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149017903","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A novel pooled milk test strategy for the herd level diagnosis of <i>Dictyocaulus viviparus</i>.","authors":"Catherine McCarthy, Johan Höglund, Rob Christley, Mikael Juremalm, Inna Kozlova, Robert Smith, Jan van Dijk","doi":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100008","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Current diagnostic methods for detecting the presence or absence of <i>Dictyocaulus viviparus</i> in dairy herds, are insensitive when based on detection of antibody levels in bulk tank milk (BTM). Here we present a novel technique to confirm the presence of the parasite based on a pooled-milk sample from 10 randomly selected first - lactation heifers (FLH). This study was run in two parts. First, a longitudinal study was performed to look at infection dynamics in milk samples across the grazing season using a prototype ELISA developed by Svanova (Boehringer-Ingelheim, Uppsala). We identified that mean ODR values in milk samples from FLH was significantly higher than that for older cows (0.13 versus 0.07 respectively, p < 0.001) suggesting that samples from the FLH cohort should be pooled to produce the test. Second, the pooled - milk test was evaluated on a cross-sectional survey of UK dairy herds (n = 25 grazing and n = 25 zero-grazing herds) to evaluate test performance under field conditions. The optical density ratio (ODR) cut-off value for our pooled-milk test using 10 FLH milk samples was optimal at a value of 0.16. Pooling 10 FLH samples created a sensitivity and specificity of 66.7% and 95.5% respectively. In comparison, whole-herd BTM samples had a maximum sensitivity of 37.5% and specificity of 63.6% at an ODR cut-off of 0.18. The area under the curve according to receiver-operative-characteristic (ROC) analysis was high for the 10-heifer test (0.87) but poor for the whole herd BTM testing (0.45). This study provides a more sensitive diagnostic test strategy for the screening of <i>D.viviparus</i> in dairy herds. Testing herds at the end of a grazing season would facilitate the planning of effective control measures, such as the use of the lungworm vaccination or strategic deworming, for the following grazing season. This may prove to be a useful test strategy for the diagnosis of a variety of parasitic diseases of livestock.</p>","PeriodicalId":23537,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Parasitology: X","volume":"1 ","pages":"100008"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6788444/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149017869","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Infection dynamics of <i>Cryptosporidium bovis</i> and <i>Cryptosporidium ryanae</i> in a Swedish dairy herd.","authors":"Malin Åberg, Ulf Emanuelson, Karin Troell, Camilla Björkman","doi":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100010","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In order to investigate the infection dynamics of <i>Cryptosporidium bovis</i> and <i>Cryptosporidium ryanae</i>, a Swedish dairy farm known to be free of <i>C. parvum</i> was recruited for a one-year study. Fecal samples were collected every four weeks (a total of 13 occasions) from 20 randomly selected calves younger than 65 days. A total of 238 feces samples were collected directly from the rectum and then examined with immunofluorescence microscopy; those positive for <i>Cryptosporidium</i> spp. oocysts were further processed by molecular species determination. Oocysts were found in 92 samples, and in 72 of these the species was successfully determined: 87.5% <i>C. bovis,</i> 9.7% <i>C. ryanae</i> and 2.8% a mix of both species. No <i>C. parvum</i> was found. The prevalence of shedding calves was highest at ages 4 and 5 weeks; however, the feces with the highest oocyst per gram (OPG) were registered at 2-4 weeks of age. This is earlier than what has been found in most other studies, indicating that the infection dynamics of <i>C. bovis/C. ryanae</i> may be affected by the presence of <i>C. parvum</i>. The OPG for the positive calves ranged from 200 to 1.1 × 10⁶ (geometric mean 6.88 × 10³). The youngest calf in which <i>C. bovis</i> was identified was 5 days old, and the youngest calf in which <i>C. ryanae</i> was identified was 15 days old. Calves' housing type and seasonality were not associated with differences in the shedding of oocysts. Furthermore, there was no association between the presence of diarrhea and oocyst shedding.</p>","PeriodicalId":23537,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Parasitology: X","volume":"1 ","pages":"100010"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7458383/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149017944","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"In-home assessment of flea control and dermatologic lesions in dogs provided by lotilaner (Credelio^®) and spinosad (Comfortis^®) in west central Florida.","authors":"Michael W Dryden, Michael S Canfield, Brian H Herrin, Cara Bocon, Todd S Bress, Anna Hickert, Todd M Kollasch, Letitia Phan, Anthony J Rumschlag, William G Ryan, Bridgette Sampeck, Nicole Smith, Vicki Smith, Stanislaw A Warcholek","doi":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100009","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100009","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Post-launch field investigations of recently-approved flea control products establish an efficacy baseline and in subsequent years can detect any efficacy decline suggestive of emerging resistance. As part of a continuing program of yearly assessment of flea control products in west central Florida, this study, using client-owned dogs, investigated the efficacy of lotilaner and spinosad in controlling fleas and in alleviating dermatologic signs likely associated with flea infestations. Forty-four qualifying households were randomized to either a lotilaner (Credelio^®) (minimum dose rate 20 mg/kg) or a spinosad (Comfortis^®) (30 mg/kg) group, with 33 and 36 dogs in each group, respectively. On Days 0 and 28 (±2) all dogs in each household were treated with the allocated product according to label directions, and all household cats received spinetoram (Cheristin^®). On Day 0 and at weekly intervals through Day 56 (±2), on-animal and premises flea burdens were enumerated, a veterinary dermatologist scored integumental changes using canine atopic dermatitis extent and severity index (CADESI)-4 and flea allergy dermatitis (FAD) scales, and owners scored pruritus using the validated canine pruritus severity scale (CPSS). At study entry geometric mean flea counts were 33.2 and 29.9 in the lotilaner and spinosad groups, respectively. For both groups, reductions in flea counts were > 99% at the first post-treatment assessment (Week 1), and 100% from Week 6 through the final assessment (Week 8) when all study dogs were flea-free. For both groups, at each timepoint, flea counts on dogs and in traps were significantly reduced compared to the initial assessment (p < 0.001), as were improvements in median CADESI-4, FAD and CPSS scores (p ≤ 0.001). At Week 4, the geometric mean flea count on dogs in the lotilaner group (0.1) was significantly lower than that of dogs in the spinosad group (0.6) (p = 0.027), significantly fewer dogs in the lotilaner group were found to have fleas (p = 0.034), and mean owner-rated pruritus scores were significantly lower (p = 0.025). Under field conditions favoring heavy flea challenge, two consecutive monthly treatments of dogs with either lotilaner or spinosad produced a 100% reduction in canine flea infestations and dramatic improvements in dermatologic lesions and pruritus, based on scoring by a veterinary dermatologist and by dog owners. Household flea burdens were driven to extinction in all but one home in each treatment group.</p>","PeriodicalId":23537,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Parasitology: X","volume":"1 ","pages":"100009"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-04-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7458372/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141861073","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Applying I see inside histological methodology to evaluate gut health in broilers challenged with <i>Eimeria</i>.","authors":"Bruna L Belote, Igor Soares, Aline Tujimoto-Silva, Adrien W D Sanches, Antonio L Kraieski, Elizabeth Santin","doi":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100004","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The present study evaluated the effects of coccidiosis on histological parameters and performance of broilers submitted to a mild challenge with <i>Eimeria</i> sp. A total of 132 broilers were randomly divided into two groups with 6 replicates of 11 birds each: negative control (NC) - birds uninfected and challenge (CH) - birds infected by gavage at day-one with 10x the manufacturer recommended dose of Bio-Coccivet R^® live vaccine by Biovet, with strains of <i>E. acervulina, E. brunetti, E. maxima, E. necatrix, E. praecox, E. tenella</i> and <i>E. mitis</i>. From 1 to 28 d of age, weekly the zootechnical performance was evaluated and samples of the liver, duodenum, jejunum and ileum were collected and submitted to histological analysis by the I See Inside methodology (ISI). The ISI methodology is a metric evaluation of histological alterations in the intestine and liver. Which translates macroscopic and microscopic alterations into numbers and allows their correlation with the animal zootechnical performance. Pearson's correlation was used to demonstrates how the damages to the gut, evaluated by ISI method, could affect negatively the performance of broilers. The presence of oocysts in histological analysis of the jejunum and ileum at 7d indicate a negative effect on performance over the next 2 weeks (14d and 21d). When the ISI total score was measured in the ileum at 14d, we observed a strong negative effect on zootechnical performance from that period on 14d, 21d and 28d. The obtained data demonstrates that the higher the ISI scores, the worse are the zootechnical performance results of broilers challenged with <i>Eimeria</i> sp. and the I See Inside scores could be applied to evaluate coccidiosis effect on performance in future.</p>","PeriodicalId":23537,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Parasitology: X","volume":"1 ","pages":"100004"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7458385/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149017919","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Multigeneric resistance to monepantel on a UK sheep farm.","authors":"David J Bartley, Kim Hamer, Leigh Andrews, Neil D Sargison, Alison A Morrison","doi":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100003","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The amino acetonitrile derivative, monepantel, represented the first new broad spectrum anthelmintic to be brought to market for use in sheep for over 25 years when it was introduced in 2009. This study characterised monepantel efficacy, using faecal egg count reduction and controlled efficacy tests, against gastrointestinal nematodes following a report of treatment failure in a UK lowland sheep flock. Twelve lambs were each artificially administered 15,000 infective larvae that had been propagated from lamb faeces collected from the farm of interest. The controlled efficacy test showed that a recommended dose rate of monepantel (2.5 mg/kg body weight) administered at day 28 post infection was ineffective at removing the infection in the treated lambs. The result demonstrated simultaneous resistance to monepantel in <i>Teladorsagia circumcincta</i>, <i>Trichostrongylus vitrinus</i> and <i>Oesophagostomum venulosum</i> with efficacies based on adult worm burden reductions, compared to untreated controls, of 78%, 27% and 22% respectively. Monepantel efficacy based on undifferentiated egg count in treated animals, seven day post administration, compared to untreated controls was 85%. The results raise questions about the origins of, and predisposing factors for, resistance development in the three different species, and reinforces the value of differentiating post treatment faecal egg counts to genus or species level.</p>","PeriodicalId":23537,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Parasitology: X","volume":"1 ","pages":"100003"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7458375/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149017954","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Efficacy of an injectable toltrazuril - gleptoferron (Forceris^®) to control coccidiosis (<i>Cystoisospora suis</i>) in comparison with iron supplemented piglets without anticoccidial treatment.","authors":"Lysanne Hiob, Ivette Holzhausen, Daniel Sperling, Gaëlle Pagny, Laurianne Meppiel, Naomi Isaka, Arwid Daugschies","doi":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100002","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100002","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The efficacy and safety of an injectable combination product containing toltrazuril and gleptoferron (Forceris^® - CEVA) for the control of coccidiosis due to <i>Cystoisospora suis</i> was investigated in neonatal piglets. The study was carried out on five European commercial pig farms in France, Germany and Spain and 122 litters consisting of 1508 piglets were selected and randomly allocated to one of two treatment groups. The first group received a single intramuscular injection per piglet of the test product, containing 45 mg toltrazuril and 200 mg iron and this was compared with a control group, which was administered a single intramuscular treatment of iron at 200 mg per piglet only. Body weights, faecal scores and oocysts counts, recorded as oocysts per gram of faeces, (OPG) were observed for 21 days. Only 1138 piglets were actually exposed to coccidiosis and data sets of these animals were selected for statistical analysis. The efficacy of the test product in the control of coccidiosis was shown in higher body weight gains, a lower percentage of animals with diarrhoea, fewer samples with positive oocysts counts as well as a lower excretion peak and a reduced area under the curve of OPG from study day (SD) 4 - SD 21. The combination product of toltrazuril and gleptoferron provided an effective alternative approach to current conventional separate treatment for the prevention of iron deficiency anaemia and coccidiosis in neonatal piglets. It reduced the numbers of potentially stressful interventions and work time.</p>","PeriodicalId":23537,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Parasitology: X","volume":"1 ","pages":"100002"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7458377/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140319281","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Comparative assessment of faecal diagnostics for detection and predictive modelling of endemic <i>Fasciola hepatica</i> infection in sheep and cattle on Australian farms.","authors":"S D George, A J George, P F Rolfe, D L Emery","doi":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2018.100001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vpoa.2018.100001","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The diagnosis, monitoring and flukicide efficacy testing of fasciolosis on-farm is reliant on non-terminal methods. The coproantigen ELISA (cELISA) has been recommended for diagnosis of fasciolosis and associated flukicide efficacy testing as an alternative to fluke egg counts for monitoring parasitism. Recently experimental multi-age infections have suggested that the reliability of efficacy results can be improved by a second cELISA testing at 6 weeks post-treatment (wpt) in addition to the generally accepted 1 wpt. A field study was conducted to determine the suitability of faecal fluke egg counts (FFEC) and cELISA as diagnostic, drug efficacy testing and epidemiological tools on Australian sheep and cattle farms. Faecal samples from sheep and/or cattle on three endemic farms were taken at monthly intervals for 12 months and examined by both methods. Normal farm management was maintained during the study period and opportunistic efficacy testing, in line with each farm's normal flukicide management was undertaken. Additionally, the suitability of the Ollerenshaw Index as a predictive model for fasciolosis under Australian conditions was examined. While both diagnostics demonstrated their value in the farm environment, the current data demonstrate a distinct and significant increase in diagnostic sensitivity for epidemiological studies by using the two tests in parallel. The agreement between the two diagnostics was found to be higher in cattle, despite the poor sensitivity of FFEC in this species. Similar levels of agreement between the two tests were demonstrated at both sheep properties, regardless of the marked difference in the intensity of <i>F. hepatica</i> challenge. Linear regression models demonstrated the results of the two diagnostics utilized in parallel were explained substantially (R² = 0.91) as were series data (R² = 0.88) when the respective models were fitted. In contrast, the fitted models for FFEC (R² = 0.54) and cELISA (R² = 0.58) were poor explanations for test outcomes. The outcomes of these models support previous findings that suggest that the two diagnostic tests are best utilized together, particularly in parallel. The application of the Ollerenshaw Index to Australian conditions requires further investigation.</p>","PeriodicalId":23537,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Parasitology: X","volume":"1 ","pages":"100001"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7458369/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140319352","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}