{"title":"LiDAR Beam Steering and Optics","authors":"P. McManamon","doi":"10.1117/3.2518254.CH7","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1117/3.2518254.CH7","url":null,"abstract":"There are many ways to steer optical beams. Historically, steering an optical beam meant moving a mirror or a transmissive optical element. Over the last few decades, other approaches have been developed that involve creating an optical path difference (OPD) or a phase difference. We can group beam steering methods into mechanical and nonmechanical approaches. Nonmechanical approaches are sometimes called optical phased arrays (OPAs) because they change the angle of an optical beam based on changing the phase profile of that optical beam. Microwave phased-array radars, which have been around for decades, use this approach of changing the phase of an outgoing or incoming beam. The much-shorter wavelength associated with optical systems makes this approach more difficult. Following the discussion of mechanical and nonmechanical approaches to beam steering, a few relevant optical design parameters for a LiDAR are presented. This topic includes a brief discussion of adaptive optics, as well as how to use some of the presented nonmechanical techniques to make dynamically adaptive optical elements. If it is possible to change a phase profile across an optical element to steer a beam, then it is also possible to change a phase profile to make a lens or another optical element. The future era of flexible optical elements will be an enabler.","PeriodicalId":229739,"journal":{"name":"LiDAR Technologies and Systems","volume":"26 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132707240","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"LiDAR Performance Metrics","authors":"P. McManamon","doi":"10.1117/3.2518254.CH10","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1117/3.2518254.CH10","url":null,"abstract":"Most early image metrics have been derived for 2D imaging. Change detection and video are currently becoming more popular as well. 3D imaging is a revolutionary sensing technology on the horizon, and other sensing technologies such as laser vibration detection are developing. Eventually, we will need to develop image quality metrics applicable to these new sensing modalities, including 3D sensing. 3D LiDAR is a very likely method for developing a 3D point cloud image. Passive stereo sensors can also develop such an image, and 3D image metrics can be used for both methods of developing a 3D image. A stereoscopic, passive 3D image will likely have lower resolution in range than in angle/angle, with range resolution depending on angle resolution and the size of the stereo angle used, whereas time-of-flight LiDAR has range resolution that is independent of angle/angle resolution.","PeriodicalId":229739,"journal":{"name":"LiDAR Technologies and Systems","volume":"231 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123065252","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Introduction to LiDAR","authors":"P. McManamon","doi":"10.1117/3.2518254.CH1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1117/3.2518254.CH1","url":null,"abstract":"LiDAR uses electromagnetic (EM) waves in the optical and infrared wavelengths. It is an active sensor, meaning that it sends out an EM wave and receives the reflected signal back. It is similar to microwave radar, except at a much shorter wavelength. This means that it will have much better angular resolution than radar but will not see through fog or clouds. It is similar to passive electro-optical (EO) sensors in wavelengths, except that it provides its own radiation rather than using existing radiation, and has many more sensing modes due to control over the scene illumination. LiDAR brings its own flashlight and can therefore see at night using near-infrared wavelengths, whereas passive EO sensors have limited capability in the near infrared at night because of insufficient available near-infrared radiation. This means that LiDAR can have increased angular resolution associated with the shorter wavelengths and still operate 24 hours per day.","PeriodicalId":229739,"journal":{"name":"LiDAR Technologies and Systems","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-07-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130305620","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Significant Applications of LiDAR","authors":"P. McManamon","doi":"10.1117/3.2518254.CH11","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1117/3.2518254.CH11","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":229739,"journal":{"name":"LiDAR Technologies and Systems","volume":"10 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-07-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130905848","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Figures of Merit, Testing, and Calibration for LiDAR","authors":"P. McManamon","doi":"10.1117/3.2518254.CH9","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1117/3.2518254.CH9","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":229739,"journal":{"name":"LiDAR Technologies and Systems","volume":"58 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-07-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124226130","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Types of LiDAR","authors":"P. McManamon","doi":"10.1117/3.2518254.CH4","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1117/3.2518254.CH4","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":229739,"journal":{"name":"LiDAR Technologies and Systems","volume":"30 20","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-07-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"120813611","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"LiDAR Sources and Modulations","authors":"P. McManamon","doi":"10.1117/3.2186106.ch61","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1117/3.2186106.ch61","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":229739,"journal":{"name":"LiDAR Technologies and Systems","volume":"18 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2015-03-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130699715","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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