Patty's Toxicology最新文献

{"title":"Polyurethanes, Miscellaneous Organic Polymers, and Silicones","authors":"S. Cragg","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX093.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX093.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"The toxicity of the polymers discussed in this chapter may be generally attributed to the residual monomers, catalysts, and other additives present rather than the polymer per se. The cured polymer itself may be of high molecular weight and, consequently, more or less toxicologically inert. Carefully manufactured, highly refined polymers contain few residual toxic chemicals. However, some of the polymers discussed in this chapter, at least in some applications, go through an intermediate stage consisting of “prepolymers” (sometimes referred to as “resins”) that react further to achieve their final, cured form. An example is a polyurethane system for making foam cushions. To manufacture polyurethane foam for cushions, workers combine diisocyanate molecules with a polyol prepolymer. Such “systems” inherently have more potential for exposure of workers if not the general public to toxic monomers or other reactive chemicals. The exposure potential of glues, paints, and coatings may extend more broadly to the consumer. Thus, examination of the toxicity of the polymers discussed in this chapter focuses on monomers and prepolymers. This is not always so. Some of polymers in this chapter are used in biomedical devices or in a way that puts them in intimate contact with humans. Here, the issue of biodegradation becomes important because of potential toxicity from breakdown products of the polymer, or rejection may ensue if the polymer is incompatible with the surrounding tissues. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Polyurethanes; \u0000Foams; \u0000Elastomers; \u0000Coating adhesives; \u0000Fibers; \u0000Combustion toxicity; \u0000Amino plastics; \u0000Phenol-formaldehyde resins; \u0000Urea-formaldehyde; \u0000Melamine-formaldehyde; \u0000Furan polymers; \u0000Polybenzimidazole; \u0000Silicone elastomers","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87343025","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Alkylpyridines and Miscellaneous Organic Nitrogen Compounds","authors":"D. G. L. J. K. Ms","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.tox060.pub2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.tox060.pub2","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter covers additional aliphatic and aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in their structures and follows those discussed in Chapter 59. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Pyridine and its many modified structures are described because they serve as a backbone for many industrial compounds. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Several pesticides and herbicides, as well as their precursors, are included: the pyridinethiones; the substituted uracil herbicides—bromacil, lenacil, and terbacil; the quaternary herbicides–paraquat, diquat, and difenzoquat; the s-triazines—atrazine and propazine; and other triazine herbicides, such as ametryn, prometryne, and simazine. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Simple nitrogen compounds such as azides, nitrosamines, and hydrazines are described because of important toxicological effects they can produce. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Finally, two important industrial solvents, dimethylacetamide and dimethylformamide, are included because they have a long history of use and have been well studied in the occupational environment. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Other than the pyridine series of chemicals and the nitroso compounds, most of the chemicals reviewed here include significant new information since the last chapter review. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Alkylpyridines; \u0000aquatic toxicity; \u0000dimethylacetamide; \u0000dimethylformamide; \u0000genetic toxicity; \u0000herbicides; \u0000hydrazines; \u0000industrial solvents; \u0000nitrosamines; \u0000pesticides","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75618926","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Cold Stress: Effects on Performance and Health","authors":"I. Holmér, J. Hassi, T. Ikäheimo, J. Jaakkola","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX097.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX097.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"The present chapter is intended to provide an overview of cold stress and strain not only on workers in cold workplaces, but also on people in general exposed to cold climate. Human adaptation to cold can be either acquired or inherited and occurs through acclimatization. The pattern of cold adaptation is dependent on the type (air, water) and intensity (continuous, intermittent) of the cold exposure. It has been reported that cold exposure and cooling can have profound effects on physical and cognitive performance. The majority of scientific reports related to health consequences of cold weather are on acute health changes. The study finds that total mortality among most populations is highest in winter and lowest in summer. Regulations or standards defining acceptable cold stress situations rely on one or a combination of approaches to control cold stress. Most prevalent national or international exposure guidelines have been provided comprehensively. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000clothing; \u0000frostbite; \u0000hand-arm vibration syndrome; \u0000hypothermia; \u0000solar radiation; \u0000wind chill temperature; \u0000cold mortality; \u0000cold morbidity","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88122824","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Infrared, Visible, and Ultraviolet Radiation","authors":"D. Sliney, Maurice Bitran, W. Murray","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX102.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX102.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Sir William Herschel's discovery of “obscure rays,” extending beyond the red end of the visible spectrum, launched the exploration of the electromagnetic spectrum outside the visible range in the year 1800. The following year Johann Ritter demonstrated that invisible rays beyond the violet end of the spectrum are capable of chemical action. These three adjacent portions of the electromagnetic spectrum: infrared (IR), visible (vis), and ultraviolet (UV) are collectively known as optical radiation. Although infrared and ultraviolet radiations are invisible to the human eye, they are considered to be “optical” because they share some propagation and interaction characteristics with visible. As does the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum, optical radiation obeys the laws of electrodynamics and can be described both as electromagnetic waves and as energy corpuscles. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000All known electromagnetic radiations are customarily arranged monotonically according to their energy in a continuum called the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum spans many orders of magnitude in energy and, correspondingly, in frequency and wavelength. The optical radiation range is located between microwave radiation and X-rays. The optical radiation range is composed, in order of increasing energy, of infrared, visible, and ultraviolet radiation. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Although there are no sharp, well-defined boundaries in the electromagnetic spectrum, the optical radiation range is conventionally defined as extending from 1 mm at the bottom end of the infrared to 100 nm at the upper end of the ultraviolet. The optical range is divided as follows: \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Ultraviolet \u0000100–400 nm \u0000 \u0000Light \u0000380–400 to 760–780 nm \u0000 \u0000Infrared \u0000760–780 nm to 1 mm \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The reason for the “fuzzy” boundaries for the visible range is that they are defined by the physiological process of vision, which has some intrinsic variability. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The main mechanisms that produce optical radiation are incandescence, electrical discharge, and lasing. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The wavelengths in the optical radiation range have limited penetration into the human body. Therefore, the main organs affected by optical radiation are the skin and the eyes, although systemic effects have also been identified. Evolving in an environment where the sun is the main source of optical radiation, humans have developed adaptive characteristics, such as skin pigmentation, a hairy scalp, receded eyes, and aversion responses to bright lights and to excessive heat. These characteristics, however, provide only partial protection against optical radiation. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Optical radiation can act on biological tissue through thermal and photochemical processes. The extent of damage depends on the intensity of the radiation, the wavelength, the exposure time, and the optical and physiological characteristics of the tissue exposed. The variability in biological effectiveness of different wavelengths (three orders of magnitude within the ultraviolet ran","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"76591242","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Regulations and Guidelines for Toxic Exposures in the Workplace","authors":"C. Monforton","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX008.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX008.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Occupational diseases can serve as the sentinel warnings about the hazards of toxic substances. Regulations and guidelines to control workers' exposure to toxic substances have been influenced by larger social forces, which may have enhanced or impeded the degree of protection provided. Toxicological and epidemiological research and technological developments provide the rationale and the methodologies used to develop legislation, regulations, and guidelines to reduce occupational exposure to toxins. Most regulations and standards for worker protection have training requirements to increase employees' understanding of workplace hazards. These complement the engineering and administrative controls implemented by the affected employers. In the U.S., many industries fall under the authority of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, but some are also required to comply with worker-safety regulations issued by other agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, Nuclear Regulatory Commission or Department of Transportation. A brief description of workplace standards and occupational exposure limits for selected countries are presented. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Environmental Protection Agency; \u0000Occupational Safety and Health Administration; \u0000material safety data sheets; \u0000recommended exposure limits; \u0000threshold limit values","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78548217","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Smoke and Combustion Products","authors":"C. Baxter","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX108.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX108.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Exposure to smoke and complex combustion products is a major source of death and disease in two major populations: residents of burning structures and firefighters attempting to extinguish them. Seventy-six percent of the people that died in fires in their residential structures in 1990 died from the inhalation of toxic combustion products, not from burns (J. R. Hall and B. Harwood, Smoke or burns—which is deadlier? NFPA J., 38–43 (1995)). This percentage has been rising by about one percentage point per year since 1979. Although total deaths in fires are declining, the percentage attributed to smoke inhalation has increased. The majority of deaths and chronic diseases in residential firefighters have also been attributed to smoke exposure (T. L. Guidotti, Occupational mortality among firefighters: assessing the association. J. Occup. Environ. Med., 37, 1348–1359 (1995)). The area of research termed combustion toxicity has evolved to study the adverse health effects caused by smoke or fire atmospheres. According to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), smoke consists of “the airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases evolved when a material undergoes pyrolysis or combustion” (Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.07, E176, ASTM, 1996, pp. 496–500) and therefore, includes combustion products. In this chapter, a fire atmosphere is defined as all the effluents generated by the thermal decomposition of materials or products regardless of whether that effluent is produced under smoldering, nonflaming, or flaming conditions. The objectives of combustion toxicity research are to identify potentially harmful products from the thermal degradation of materials, to determine the best measurement methods for the identification of the toxicants as well as the degree of toxicity, to determine the effect of different fire exposures on the composition of the toxic combustion products, to predict the toxicity of the combustion atmospheres based on the concentrations and the interaction of the toxic products, and to establish the physiological effects of such products on living organisms. The ultimate goals of this field of research are to reduce human fire fatalities due to smoke inhalation, to determine effective treatments for survivors, and to prevent unnecessary suffering from cancer and other adverse health outcomes caused by smoke inhalation. Other reviews of various aspects of this subject can be found in the following references: \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000B. C. Levin, Combustion toxicology, in P. Wexler, ed., Encyclopedia of Toxicology, Vol. 1, Academic Press, San Diego, 1998, pp. 360–374. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000G. L. Nelson, ed., Fire and Polymers II: Materials and Tests for Hazard Prevention, ACS Symposium Series 599, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1995. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000National Research Council and National Materials Advisory Board, Fire- and Smoke-Resistant Interior Materials for Commercial Transport Aircraft, Publication Number NMAB-477-1, National Acade","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72611879","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Aromatic Nitro and Amino Compounds","authors":"E. Bingham, William L. McGowan","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX057.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX057.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Logically, aromatic nitro and amino compounds should be discussed together because their toxic responses are often similar due to a common metabolic intermediate. Synthetically, amines are generally derived from nitro compounds, but in some cases nitro compounds can be prepared through amines when other methods fail to afford specific compounds. There are good and bad attributes to these types of compounds. Some act as sensitizers and contingent on physical properties may be absorbed through the skin or mucous membranes. They may also cause methemoglobinemia, depending on such factors as the structure and the particular organism. Some members of this class are known as animal and human carcinogens; for humans, the urinary bladder is the most prominent target organ. Nevertheless, these compounds and their derivatives have enlivened our world through their use as dyestuff intermediates or as photographic chemicals, they alleviate pain as components of widely used analgesics, and they cushion or insulate us through their use in flexible and rigid foams. Other important uses include production of pesticides, including herbicides and fungicides, as ingredients in adhesives, paints and coatings, antioxidants, explosives, optical brighteners, rubber ingredients, and as intermediates in many other products. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Air pollutants; \u0000aromatic amino compounds; \u0000aromatic nitro compounds; \u0000bladder cancer; \u0000chloro compounds; \u0000databases; \u0000inventories","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79709824","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Saturated Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Two to Four Carbons","authors":"J. B. Reid, C. Muianga","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX063.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX063.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter relies extensively on information provided in earlier editions. Several online databases were utilized in searching for recent information in preparing the chapter. These included NTP (National Toxicology Program), IRIS (Integrated Risk Information Service), and the ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) websites. Most recent information was sought through MEDLINE and when possible the original articles were reviewed. Debatably, IRIS was considered to be the last word with regard to cancer. Many of the compounds have been recently reviewed by the ATSDR and are reported in their toxicological profiles. Recent reviews were utilized in preparing this chapter. In addition, the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards and the ACGIH's TLV's® for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents: 2011 (CD) were utilized. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000ethylene chloride; \u0000metabolic disposition; \u00001,1-dichloroethane; \u0000ethylene dichloride; \u0000methyl chloroform; \u00001,1,2-trichlorethane; \u00001,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane; \u0000pentachloroethane; \u0000hexachloroethane; \u0000propyl chloride; \u0000isopropyl chloride; \u0000ethyl bromide; \u0000ethylene dibromide; \u00001,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90678011","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Occupational Chemical Carcinogenesis","authors":"J. Huff, R. Melnick","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX004.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX004.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Cancer is not a single disease, but rather is a general term applied to a multitude of diseases and stages of disease, each of clonal origin, that elicit uncontrollable tissue growth. There are more than 100 different types of cancer. In normal tissue the balance between cell reproduction and cell death determines the ultimate size of an organ. This balance is clearly represented after partial hepatectomy where, following removal of as much as two-thirds of the liver, regeneration results in restoration of the liver to its original size. If a normal cell incurs a defect in its growth regulating processes and acquires a growth advantage over other cells in a particular tissue or organ, it may multiply out of control producing a mass of altered cells; this abnormal overgrowth of new tissue is called a tumor or neoplasm. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The multistep process of carcinogenesis is thought to involve at least four stages: (1) initiation—the induction of a heritable change in a cell resulting from DNA damage (from endogenous processes or by a DNA reactive environmental agent or its metabolites) that can lead to point mutations, insertions, deletions, or chromosomal aberrations; (2) promotion—the clonal expansion of the initiated cell population; (3) progression—the process whereby benign neoplasms become malignant, as a consequence of increased genomic instability in neoplastic cells that gives rise to additional genetic alterations (i.e., mutations, chromosomal deletions, and/or rearrangements), and (4) metastasis—the spread of cancerous cells to other parts of the body. With increasing knowledge of the number of genes altered in human cancers, it is evident that even a four-stage model is not adequate to describe the carcinogenic process. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Two groups of genes control normal tissue growth; protooncogenes promote growth while suppressor genes halt growth. Normal protooncogenes of which there are 300–400 within the human genome regulate cell division and differentiation. If a protooncogene is mutated it may become an activated oncogene that causes the normal regulated cycling pattern of the affected cell to proceed out of control. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Most tumors are defined by their cell of origin and their behavior or appearance. Benign neoplasms of epithelial origin are referred to as adenomas or papillomas, and benign neoplasms of mesenchymal origin are referred to as fibromas, osteoma, gliomas, etc. Malignant tumors of epithelial cells are carcinomas, and malignant tumors of mesenchymal tissues are sarcomas. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Environmental insults, including ionizing or UV radiation, certain viruses, or various chemical agents can cause genetic damage that converts protooncogenes to oncogenes or inactivates tumor suppressor genes. The simplest definition of a carcinogen is an agent that can cause cancer. However, identifying an agent as a human carcinogen and assessing human risk associated with environmental or occupational exposure is complicated because of the multitude of ","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"91480736","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Aliphatic and Aromatic Nitrogen Compounds","authors":"G. Kennedy","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX059.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX059.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter covers both aliphatic and aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in their structures. Only a small number of the nitrogen-containing compounds that could be considered will be reviewed here mainly based on their uses in industry. This is an update of a previous chapter and for each chemical, the first sentence will tell the reader whether there has been significant new information published in the literature and included or whether there has been little or no new information available for update and inclusion. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Three-membered rings discussed are ethyleneimine, propyleneimine, and, one polyfunctional derivative, triethylenemelamine. Toxicologists, chemists, and biologists have always been interested in ethyleneimine and its derivatives because they are reactive, are useful at relatively low doses, and are moderately to highly toxic. Ethyleneimines are classic alkylating agents and have toxicological effects similar to nitrogen mustards. Monofunctional derivatives of ethyleneimine are less potent in producing the characteristic toxicity of the group than the derivatives that have two or more ethyleneimine groups. Finally, polymers of ethyleneimine and its derivatives have shown a relatively low order of toxicity. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Six simple nitrogen mustards (β-chloroethylamines) are also covered in this chapter. They are all tertiary amines in which the halogen atom and the amine portion have reactivities similar to the alkyl halides and alkyl amines. They have no significant industrial uses in the United States, but they are used in medicine as “antineoplastic agents” and in treating some nonmalignant diseases. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Representative nitrogen-containing chemicals that have five-membered rings (pyrrolidine, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone) and six-membered rings (piperidine, piperazine, morpholine, and hexamethylenetetramine) are also discussed in this chapter in some detail. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Several representative aromatic nitrogen compounds are covered—pyrrole, aminotriazole, N-sulfenyl phthalimide fungicides, benzimidazole fungicides, and 1-H-benzotriazole. The data presented for compounds of this class that are used in agriculture include toxicology studies that have been published in the open literature as well as those available through company files to support governmental registration. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000In some cases, the high toxicity of the agent has been considered and is the reason for its inclusion here, rather than usage volume or industrial importance. Further, very little pharmacological information is presented because this is adequately covered in the pharmacological literature. We have tried to minimize hypotheses regarding the mechanism of action not because it is unimportant, but because the biochemistries are often very detailed, are almost always fairly speculative, and are presented comprehensively in other texts. Likewise, we resisted the temptation to employ structure–activity relationships because, although the database ","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84852238","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}